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Danubian Rider Lead Votive Plaques

By Shawn M Caza (2021)

Introduction

Lead plaques bearing the image of two horseman facing a female figure are common in the antiquities market. While they are found in many varieties, almost every version displays these three key figures, though they are surrounded by images of many other items, arranged differently on each version.

These plaques are widely known as “Danubian Rider plaques”, though few details about the plaques or the cult or religion behind them are actually known. This article will try to shed some light on these mysterious objects.

General Features

These lead plaques have been studied since at least the late 19th century. However, they remain largely unknown and misunderstood. Several typologies have been attempted: Iskra-Janošić (1966), Ochsenschlager (1971), Tudor (1976) and Ertl (1996). In this article I will be following the Ertl typology.

The plaques are made of lead. While I am not aware of any metallurgical testing carried out on them, they appear (colour of bare metal, patina, weight and smell) to be fairly high purity lead. Lead was a magical metal in the Roman world. It was connected with votive offerings, luck and the dead (Pluto). Lead was regularly used for votive items as well as things like curse tablets (defixiones).

The plaques have a plain reverse and appear to have been cast in an open mould or a simple bi-valve mould with one side blank. They are either rectangular or round and are relatively large (approx. 7.5-9 cm by 8-10 cm for the rectangular, 7-7.5 cm diameter for the round) and heavy (approx. 110-140 g for the rectangular, 75-100 g for the round). Despite this, they are somewhat delicate as lead is a soft metal and they can bend or break easily. Indeed, small fragments of these plaques are common finds. These fragments sometimes appear to be cut up carefully into even squares and it is possible that this had some sort of ritual significance.

Actual physical usage of the plaques is uncertain. They have no holes or other means of fastening or attachment. It is possible that they were carried in a perishable holder, perhaps some sort of leather or fabric phylactery, pouch or wallet. It is also possible that they were simply set up in homes and barracks as a form of lararium (personal shrine) and were packed away carefully for travel. This, however, makes more sense for flat bottom types that would stand upright than for the round types.

Unfortunately, there is very little actual archeological find context regarding these plaques. Even most museum examples were donations and not the result of excavations. Nevertheless, their general distribution pattern is well known. They have almost exclusively been found along the Danube limes, from Dacia and Moesia Inferior, through Moesia Superior and Pannonian Inferior where they are most common, and into Pannonia Superior and Noricum. They are very rarely found outside this area. Based on finds, all authors agree that the main types at least were made in or near Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica in NW Serbia).

The distribution pattern has caused some authors (e.g. Iskra-Janošić) to attribute them primarily to the Roman military. However, other authors (e.g. Domiter) have assigned them to the general population of immigrants from eastern lands (Asia Minor, Syria and Greece) who settled in the Balkans in the late second and third centuries. This grouping of peoples would of course include soldiers and their families.

They are believed, due to the limited contextual evidence and the style of figures, busts, clothing and hairstyles, to date from the early third to early fourth centuries AD.

While the different types of lead plaques vary a great deal in overall shape, internal structure and exact layout, all share a small number of symbols which are arranged in a small number of layouts. There is little variation within each type, indicating the use of very few moulds or of moulds made from very few matrices. There are, therefore, many “mould matches” found among existing examples.

The objects, scenes and symbols portrayed on these plaques make it clear that the they were related to some sort of religion or cultic practice. This will be discussed in greater detail below. However, it is clear that they represent a “mystery” religion in more ways than one. While many of the individual items portrayed on the plaques, such as eagles or busts of Sol, are well known in Roman iconography, no other item relates to the content of the plaques as a whole. There are no associated statue groupings, sculptures, temples or inscriptions.

Overall, the iconography likely indicates a syncretism between Danubian Celtic and Eastern religious and mystical beliefs. The second and third century saw a large number of oriental religions and mystery cults spread through the Roman Empire. This was especially common in the Balkans where a wide variety of cults were known, including: Mithras, Sol, Jupiter Dolichenus, Jupiter Heliopolitanus, Sabazios, Serapis, Isis, Cybele and Attis, Dea Syria, Epona, and Christianity.

An important observation made by several recent authors (e.g. Domiter and Plemić) is that despite the name that has commonly been used for these objects for decades, it is unlikely that they are related to a cult centered on the Danubian riders. The central image is almost always a standing Goddess who appears to be feeding or preparing to feed the riders’ horses - thus supporting them - and who is also almost always larger than the horsemen. Nevertheless, the term Danubian Rider plaque will continue to be used as it is so well known.

Some Common Types of Danubian Rider Plaques

Each plaque type is presented with a clean image and then a marked-up image. The markings are intended simply to help understand the written description of the design. The colour groupings are not meant to indicate any formal grouping on the part of the makers.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type B1

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Rectangular (this example damaged). Arched aedicula/temple with two pillars.

Pink: Two horned snakes or serpents.

Orange: Sol in quadriga facing, right hand raised, holding orb and whip in left hand.

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, with no caps, left-hand trampling on prone male figure, right-hand trampling on fish, star in front of each.

Light Green: Standing figure with helmet, shield and spear (Mars ?) behind left-hand horseman, standing female figure with raised arm behind right-hand horseman (Nemesis ?).

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, man observing (possibly wearing a ram’s mask), animal (ram ?) hanging from tree, man with knife.

Black: Feast scene, three people seated behind a round table with fish on a platter, to right two naked figures holding hands, one gesturing to the table.

Dark Green: Left to right, fish on a tripod table, small object (pinecone, ram’s heart ?) on cippus/pillar, snake, kantharos (urn), lion, small object (pinecone, ram’s heart ?) and rooster.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type B3

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Rectangular. Arched aedicula/temple with two pillars.

Pink: Two horned snakes or serpents, star behind each.

Orange: Sol, head left, in facing quadriga, right hand raised, holding orb in left hand, star on either side of his head (likely the morning star - Lucifer, Phosphoros or Eosphoros - and the evening star – Hesperus).

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, left with Phrygian cap and trampling on fish (somewhat resembling a dolphin), right with no cap and trampling on prone male figure.

Light Green: Standing figure with helmet, shield and spear (Mars ?) behind left-hand horseman, winged (?) female figure (Nemesis ?) behind right-hand horseman.

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, man wearing a ram-head mask observing, man with knife, animal (ram ?) hanging from tree.

Black: Feast scene, three people seated around a round table with fringed cover and fish on a platter, middle figure clutches goblet to chest, to right two naked figures holding hands and approaching table.

Dark Green: Left to right, tripod table, lion, kantharos (urn), snake and rooster.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type F1

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Rectangular with twisted border and wavy top.

Pink: Fish and four four-pointed stars.

Dark Blue: Two snakes drinking (?) water flowing out of a crater with lid.

Yellow: Busts of Luna (left) and Sol (right).

Red: Goddess with arms spread out, standing on a small pedestal.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, with Phrygian caps, trampling on prone male figures.

Light Green: Standing figure wearing ram-head mask behind left-hand horseman, female figure (Nemesis ?) standing behind right-hand horseman.

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, animal (ram ?) hanging from tree, man with knife.

Dark Green: Tripod table with three candles, tall lamp-stand and an upright dagger (?) to left. Three circles (loaves or fruit ?) above kantharos (urn) and rooster standing on a ram’s head to right.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type G1
  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Rectangular with twisted border and wavy top, circular central medallion.

Pink: Fish surrounded by six dots (planets ?). Four busts of, according to Ertl, the four seasons or possibly the four winds.

Black: Snake surrounding circular portion, tail (or possibly a head) at top left, open mouthed head at top right.

Orange: Female figure (Nemesis ?) standing, head left, arm raised.

Yellow: Busts of Sol (left) and Luna (right).

Dark Blue: Tripod table with three candles to left, rooster (or one-handled oinoche jug according to Ertl) and ram’s head to right.

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, with Phrygian caps, trampling on prone male figures (the left-hand is possibly trampling on a fish).

Light Green: Standing female figure behind left-hand horseman, four circles and a crescent (an oil lamp according to Ertl) behind right-hand horseman.

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, animal (ram ?) hanging from tree, man with knife .

Dark Green: Rooster to left, two unknown objects, the first possible a candelabra or lamp stand, to right.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type H1

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Round with twisted and small dot border, which ends at the top in two open-mouthed snake heads.

Pink: Large, six-pointed central star. Two stars and two circles to the left. Five stars and one circle to the right.

Orange: Female figure standing, head right, arm raised (Nemesis ?).

Yellow: Busts of Sol (left) and Luna (right).

Dark Blue: Altar with three candles and a ram’s head above, on left; fish above; rooster on right.

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, left with Phrygian cap, right with no cap, trampling on prone male figures.

Light Green: Rooster behind left-hand horseman, tall figure wearing ram’s head mask (?), with arm raised, standing behind right-hand horseman.

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, bucrania (horned bovine skull), man with knife, animal (ram ?) hanging from tree.

Dark Green: An unknown cross and a kantharos (urn) [missing on this example] and tripod table on left, lion on right.

Lead Plaque: Ertl type H2

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

(This example is from the Ertl collection.)

Form: Round with ovolo and small dot border.

Pink: Two snakes or serpents.

Yellow: Busts of Luna (left) and Sol (right). There is a small star to the right of Luna’s bust.

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, wearing Phrygian caps, trampling on prone female (?) figures. There is a star below the front hoof of the right-hand horse.

Light Green: A tripod table with a fish on top. Below, left to right, a rooster, kantharos (urn) and dog (or possibly ram). Below three circles (loaves of bread ?).

Lead Plaque: Ertl type H6

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

(Example in Ertl (1996), H06-006, Plate CXII, “seen in Vienna trade”.)

Form: Round with twisted border [under half remains]. In general this type is similar to H1 except the usual Goddess was missing from the centre.

Light Blue: Right-hand horseman trampling on prone male figure.

Light Green: Kantharos (urn) above rooster (or, according to Ertl, a raven ?).

Purple: Sacrifice scene, left to right, man with knife, animal (ram ?) hanging from tree.

Dark Green: Lion over three circles (loaves of bread ?) on left. Dog (or possibly ram) over star on right.

An unpublished lead plaque. Ertl type D?.

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Form: Rectangular. Aedicula/temple with two pillars, triangular pediment, and bust as acroteria. This overall form matches it Ertl type D, though it does not match his D1-D4.

This example is smaller than most other types: 5 cm wide, 6.5 cm tall, 45 g.

Yellow: Busts of Sol holding whip (left) and Luna holding torch (right), star in front of each.

Pink: Eagle standing left, head turned right. Uncertain if there are other elements.

Dark Blue: Left to right: snake, possibly an unidentified object, circle, altar with offering or fire on top, crescent (lamp ?), and snake.

Red: Goddess holding folds of himation, likely filled with food for the horses.

Light Blue: Two horsemen, left with Phrygian cap and trampling on fish, right with no cap and trampling on prone male figure.

Light Green: Standing female figure behind each horseman.

Dark Green: Left to right: lion, kantharos urn, three circles (loaves ?), tripod table, small jug or krater over ram’s head, rooster standing on unknown object.

As this is an unpublished plaque type, and the details are very faint, I have provided images taken from four different angles in an attempt to capture hard-to-see details.

An unpublished lead plaque.

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Click here to see a larger image  Click here to see a larger image

Discussion of Overall Symbolism

Domiter has suggested that these plaques should be “read” from bottom upwards.

On many types of plaque the lowest layer appears to symbolize the mortal world, the Earth, through symbols representing the four elements. These are usually, though in varying order, a snake (earth), a rooster (air), a lion (fire) and a kantharos urn (water).

The next layer from the bottom usually appears to symbolize the cult’s initiation rite. This includes a criobolium (sacrifice of a lamb) and often also portrays a cult meal to which naked figures (initiates ?) are being invited.

The next layer, often the main layer, appears to symbolize the power of Goddess to support the riders (warriors) which in turn allows them to defeat and kill their enemies. The warrior horsemen are also supported by Mars and Nemesis, though those two deities are clearly subordinate to the Goddess.

The uppermost layer appears to symbolize the celestial world of the sun (Sol), moon (Luna) and stars, often guarded (?) by the celestial serpents.

There are, of course, exceptions to this general model, and the layout of some types raises further questions.

Is there a significance between plaques with the sacrifice and feast shown, with only the sacrifice shown, and with neither shown?

Why is a fish sometimes portrayed in the uppermost part, which is usually reserved for celestial imagery?

On type F1, what are the snakes drinking from? What does this symbolize? Is it “celestial”?

What are the small oval objects in the bottom layer of type H1? Pinecones? Hearts?

Discussion of Specific Symbols

Snakes: Two types of snakes are shown of the plaques. Terrestrial snakes, in the bottom layer, likely symbolize the element earth. Celestial snakes, in the upper parts, and often with loop in their body, clearly symbolize something loftier – according to Ertl perhaps Wisdom, eternity and the preservation from death. These are thus akin to the snakes of Salus, the personification of health.

Sol: aka Sol Invictus and Helios.

Luna: aka Selene and Mene.

Goddess: The key figure of almdessost every plaque is a female, thought to represent a goddess and the main figure of the cult. Many ideas have been put forward for the identity of this goddess: in particular Nemesis, Aphrodite, Atargatis, Cybele and Epona. Most modern scholarship now agrees that the figure represents the Celtic goddess Epona, who was goddess of horses but also originally a goddess of war.

During the Roman Imperial period Epona, whose feast day was 18 December, one week before the feast of Sol, was largely worshipped by the military. By the third century AD Epona had likely evolved from her Celtic origin to become a late provincial form of the Great Mother – Magna Mater or Cyblele.

Plemić has shown that the act of feeding horses from a robe is purely a gesture of Epona. Epona is shown in similar positions on various monuments: for example seated feeding six horses, three each side, on a stone relief in Stuttgart; seated feeding two horse on a stone relief in Budapest; or standing feeding two horses from fold in her himation on a stone relief from Metz. The act of feeding is both a fertility symbol and one indicating general protection and patronage over the horses and riders.

Epona reliefs are most common along German limes, but are also known from Noricum, Pannonia, Lower Moesia and southern Dacia.

Riders: These clearly have a Balkan origin. Stone reliefs portraying one horseman standing in front of a goddess appear to originate in Thrace and are known as “Thracian Rider” depictions. These were then superseded by portrayals of two horsemen, with a goddess between, known as “Danubian Riders” depictions. The pair of horsemen are possibly a late form of the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux, or of Cautes and Cautopates who were companions of Mithras, and were likely themselves derived from the Dioscuri. One of the Dioscuri (Castor) was mortal while the other (Pollux) was immortal. Ertl wondered whether the difference between the horseman trampling on a man versus on a fish was related to this difference.

Mars: The male figure, often portrayed helmeted with spear and shield, who stands behind a horseman is widely thought to be Mars. It appears that he serves as a protector but is ranked below the Goddess.

Nemesis: The female figure, often with an arm raised towards her head, who stands behind a horsemen, or sometime above the Goddess, is widely thought to be Nemesis. According to Ertl the raised arm is actually a hand over her mouth – a position often used to symbolize Nemesis. In the role shown on the plaques Nemesis is more likely acting as a protector rather than an avenger.

Sacrifice scene: This scene likely represents a criobolium, the sacrifice of a ram. The decapitated ram hangs from a tree. According to Ertl, the man with the knife appears to be in the process of flaying the ram or removing its fleece, though removing its entrails is another possibility. It is not clear why a second figure sometimes observes the man with the knife.

Feast scene: Given the fact that the main dish of this feast is clearly a fish, this scene likely represents the mensa Delphica, or Delphic meal, a form of sacred meal. The three men are clean-shaven and shaven-headed and are possibly priests. Interestingly this number mirrors the Roman triclinium, a sacred meal since Republican times.

Elemental symbols: The four elements, principia vitae, are symbolized through the kantharos urn (water); snake (earth); lion (fire) and rooster (air).

Bibliography

Domiter, Ozren. 2016. “New fragments of the votive plaques depicting the Danube horsemen from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb”,in VAMZ 3, XLIX.

Ertl, R.F. 1996. Donaureiter-Bleivotivtafeln: Versuch einer Typologie, Publikationen des Museumsvereines Petronell-Carnuntum Auxilliarkastell.

Iskra-Janošić, I. 1966. “Rimske votivne pločice od olova u Jugoslaviji”, in Opuscula Archaeologica VI.

Ochsenschlager, E.L. 1971. “Lead plaques of the Danubian horseman type at Sirmium”, in Sirmium II.

Plemić, Bojana. 2013. “Contribution to the Study of the Danubian Horsemen Cult: Iconographic Syncretism of the Danubian Goddess and Celtic Fertility Deities”, in Archaeologica Bulgarica XVII, 2.

Teister, Mikhail Yu., Vitalii M. Zubar and Lyudmila V. Strokova. 2004. “Two lead plaques with a depiction of a Danubian horseman from the collection of the National Museum of the History of the Ukraine”, in Ancient Civilizations 10.

Tudor, D. 1969. Corpus monumentorum religionis equitum Danuvinorum (CMRED), 1: The monuments, Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romain 13.

Tudor, D. 1976. Corpus monumentorum religionis equitum Danuvinorum (CMRED), 2: The analysis and interpretations of the monuments, Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romain 13.

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