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AR Quinarius - OCTAVIAN - Uncertain Italian mint - 29-27 BC.
Obv.: CAESAR IMP VII, bare head right
Rev.:ASIA RECEPTA, Victory standing left on cista mystica between two serpents erect.
gs. 1,7 mm. 13,4
RIC 276, Sear RCV 1568Maxentius

Italien

Vittorio Emanuele III. 1900-1946

1 Lira

1913 R

Münzstätte: Rom

Vs.: Brustbild n. r.

Rs.: Geflügelte Italia mit Kranz auf Quadriga

Erhaltung: Sehr schön

Metall: 0.835 Silber

23 mm, 4,95 g _1795Antonivs Protti

Pius VII -1802 Country Italian states (Papal States)
Year 1802
Value 1 Quattrino (0.002)
Metal Copper
Weight 2.4 g
Diameter 21 mmxokleng

317 - 337, CONSTANTINE II as Caesar, AE3 struck 321 at Londinium (London), EnglandObverse: CONSTANTINVS IVN N C. Radiate and cuirassed bust of Constantine II facing left.
Reverse: BEATA TRANQVILLITAS. Altar, inscribed VOT IS XX in three lines, surmounted by cosmic globe with three stars above; across field, P - A; in exergue, PLON.
Diameter: 20mm | Weight: 2.9gms | Die Axis: 6h
RIC VII : 219
Rare
Ex Killingholme Hoard (1993)

Claudius Constantinus was the eldest son of Constantine and Fausta, he was given the rank of Caesar in A.D.316, at the same time as Crispus and Licinius II.
This coin was struck in connection with the fifteenth anniversary of Constantine II's father, Constantine the great.

THE KILLINGHOLME HOARD
The Killingholme Hoard was discovered in a field between Killingholme and Habrough on the south bank of the Humber Estuary by a pair of metal detectorists in the Autumn of 1993.
The initial coins of the hoard were surface finds, many of which were found before the hoard itself was discovered. In total, there were 1504 coins found in the topsoil, and another 2753 found buried in a single clay pot.
The top of the pot had been cut off by ploughing, which had caused a large number of coins to be scattered around the field. Nevertheless, the remains of the pot were found when the coins packed in it were detected. The pot had a diameter of about 20cm and within it were thousands of coins.
One of the finders reported that the coins appeared to have been carefully arranged inside the pot, and seemed to produce a spiralling pattern. Unfortunately, the coins were emptied into a bath for cleaning so any chance of researching this arrangement was lost forever.
The coins that constituted the hoard were bronze reduced folles, most of which were struck between the 320s and the early 330s, during the time of the emperor Constantine. Though the coins came from several mints in the Western part of the Roman Empire, most of them were from the London mint. It is thought that the hoard was probably deposited around 333/334 AD.
Because, in 1993, base metal coins were not counted as treasure, the coins were returned to the finders who sent the bulk of the coins to be auctioned off by Spink of London. Fortunately, prior to being sold, the coins were recorded by the British Museum which acquired for itself 86 coins from the hoard.
After the recordings were completed, though the finders kept a few coins for themselves, the remainder of the coins were sold off in batches. It has been rumoured that many of these coins went to the Italian luxury goods producer Bulgari, who used them to make jewellery.
Such a process would not be permitted in England today as, following the enactment of the Treasure Act in 1996, the Killingholme Hoard would now fulfil the criteria for "treasure" as outlined by the Act.

CONTEMPORARY PHOTO OF THE KILLINGHOLM HOARD, CLICK ON THUMBNAIL TO ENLARGE IT

*Alex

Huszár 547, Pohl 89-7, Unger 432h, Réthy II 89ALouis I (Lajos I, in Hun.) (1342-1382). AR denar, .49 g., 13.94 mm. max., .28 gr., 90°

Obv: + [MO]nETA LODOVICI, Saracen head left, pellets flanking.

Rev: + REGIS hVnGARIE, Patriarchal cross with random pellets.

The type was struck 1373-1382 (per Huszár, Pohl & Unger, although Huszár later wrote that the Saracen-head coinage incepted in 1372). This privy mark was struck at Pécs by one of the Saracenus brothers, probably by Johannes, who took over the mint after the death of Jacobus (per Pohl).

Huszár/Pohl rarity rating 3.

The Saracen's head is a pun on the surname of Jacobus Saracenus (Szerechen, in Hun.) and his brother, Johannes, courtiers of Italian descent who were ennobled by Louis. The image of a Saracen's head appeared on their coat of arms. Jacobus became the kammergraf at the Pécs mint in 1352, and the Comes Camerarum Regalium in 1369. He died in the early 1370s, at which time Johannes succeeded him as kammergraf.Stkp

JUSTINIAN I, AE Pentanummium (5 Nummi), struck 539 – 565 at an uncertain mintObverse: D N IVSTINIANVS P P AVG Diademed, draped and cuirassed bust of Justinian I facing right.
Reverse: Large V within wreath.
Diameter: 13mm | Weight: 1.88gms | Die Axis: 6
SBCV: 337 | DOC: 369.1 | MIB: 246
Scarce

This coin issue is the same as the issue recorded as being struck at Rome by both Sear and Dumbarton Oaks (SBCV:309, DOC: 327) except that it is of a smaller module. This has caused some debate on the possibility of it being a derivative or imitative issue which was struck at some other Italian or Sicilian mint, so both SBCV and DOC have given it a different reference number from the one they have given to the larger module coins.
*Alex

ROME
PB Tessera (16mm, 2.92 g, 12 h)
Horse standing right; C above
Erect phallus; A V flanking
Rostovtsev -

Rostovtsev1 gathers into one group all tesserae depicting the phallus, various iterations of the word Amor, and the extremely rare pieces depicting sexual acts. He assumes that these pieces were entrance tickets to the Lupanaria, ancient brothels. This association has caused many scholars to refuse to accept tesserae as currency, as they feel that such crude themes would never have been depicted on currency. Thornton2, however, convincingly argues that, as Mercury is sometimes depicted as a herm, a statuary type consisting of a bust set on a square pedestal adorned with only genitalia, the phallus is in fact an emblem of the god in his guise as a fertility deity.

1. Rostovtzev, Mikhail. 1905. Römische Bleitesserae. Ed. C.F. Lehmann and E Kornemann. Beiträge z. Liepzig: Theodor Weicher.

2. Thornton, M. K. 1980. “The Roman Lead Tesserae : Observations on Two Historical Problems Author.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 29 3: 341-3
1 commentsArdatirion

(501i) Roman Republic, D. Junius L.f. Silanus, 91 B.C.Silver denarius, Syd 646a, RSC Junia 16, S 225 var, Cr 337/3 var, VF, 3.718g, 18.6mm, 0o, Rome mint, 91 B.C.; obverse head of Roma right in winged helmet, X (control letter) behind; reverse Victory in a biga right holding reins in both hands, V (control numeral) above, D•SILANVS / ROMA in ex; mint luster in recesses. Ex FORVM.

Although the coin itself does not commemorate the event, the date this coin was struck is historically significant.

MARCUS Livius DRUSUS (his father was the colleague of Gaius Gracchus in the tribuneship, 122 B.C.), became tribune of the people in 91 B.C. He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy and generous, and a man of high integrity. With some of the more intelligent members of his party (such as Marcus Scaurus and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he recognized the need of reform. At that time an agitation was going on for the transfer of the judicial functions from the equites to the senate; Drusus proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by the admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission was to be appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of taking bribes.

The senate was hesitant; and the equites, whose occupation was threatened, offered the most violent opposition. In order, therefore, to catch the popular votes, Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced rate. By help of these riders the bill was carried.

Drusus now sought a closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long coveted boon of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out into open opposition. His laws were abrogated as informal, and each party armed its adherents for the civil struggle which was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one evening as he was returning home. His assassin was never discovered (http://62.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DR/DRUSUS_MARCUS_LIVIUS.htm).

The ensuing "Social War" (91-88 B.C.) would set the stage for the "Civil Wars" (88-87 & 82-81 B.C.) featuring, notably, Marius & Sulla; two men who would make significant impressions on the mind of a young Julius Caesar. Caesar would cross the Rubicon not thirty years later.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.Cleisthenes

0006 Sextus Pompey -- Pompey the Great and Neptune with Catanaean BrothersSextus Pompey, Imperator and Prefect of the Fleet
[Youngest Son of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great)]

Obv: [MAG⦁PIVS⦁IMP⦁ITER]; portrait of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus r.; behind jug; before lituus. Border of dots.
Rev: above, [PRAE (AE ligatured) F]; in exergue, CLAS⦁ET⦁[ORAE (AE ligatured)⦁MAR (ligatured) IT⦁EX⦁S⦁C]; Neptune standing l., wearing diadem, aplustre in r. hand, cloak over l. arm, r. foot on prow,; on either side a Catanaean brother bearing one of his parents on his shoulders1. Border of dots.
Denomination: silver denarius; Mint: Sicily, uncertain location2; Date: summer 42 - summer 39 BC3; Weight: 3.68g; Diameter: 17mm; Die axis: 30º; References, for example: Sear CRI 334; BMCRR v. II Sicily 7, 8, 9, and 10; Sydenham 1344; Crawford RRC 511/3a.

Notes:

Obverse legend: MAG[NUS]⦁PIVS⦁IMP[ERATOR]⦁ITER[UM]
Reverse legend: PRAEF[ECTUS]⦁CLAS[SIS]⦁ET⦁ORAE⦁MARIT[IMAE]⦁EX⦁S[ENATUS]⦁C[ONSULTO]

1Grueber BMCRR v. II Sicily appears a bit hesitant in his pronouncement that the representation of the Catanaean brothers in fact refers to Sextus' title Pius (p. 561), but Sear CRI appears to have no such hesitation when he states "...the type illustrates the theme of 'Pietas' in connection with the assumption of the name Pius." (p.203). DeRose Evans (1987) goes further (pp. 115 - 116), arguing that Sextus chose the Catanaean brothers ("...he consciously identifies himself with the south Italian heroes") as a way to deliberately contrast his Pietas with that of Octavian's.
2Grueber BMCRR v. II Sicily tentatively suggests Catana as a possible location and Sear CRI follows suit.
3This is the date range argued for in Estiot 2006 (p. 145). Estiot recommends returning to Crawford's proposal of 42 - 40 BC. Crawford RRC, p. 521 suggests the period in 42 BC after Sextus Pompey defeated Q. Salvidienus Rufus. Grueber BMCRR v. II Sicily, p.560 proposes 42 - 38 BC and Sydenham, p. 210 follows suit. DeRose Evans (1987), p. 129 offers a time between late summer 36 and September 36 BC.

Provenance: Ex Shanna Schmidt Numismatics 11 June 2019; from the collection of W. F. Stoecklin, Amriswil, Switzerland, acquired from Hess AG in Luzern prior to 1975. Ex Dr. Jacob Hirsch 33, 17 November 1913 Lot 1058.

Photo credits: Shanna Schmidt Numismatics

CLICK FOR SOURCES4 commentsTracy Aiello

001.1 Aes Rude 2Roman Republic. c. 4th C. BC. (15.57 grams. 22x22x7 mm). Found turn of the century excavations around Mt. Ingino, Gubbio, Umbria. Thurlow and Vecchi, plate #2, discussed page 15. Ex Warren Esty.

Aes rude, or rough bronze, was used for trade in on the Italian peninsula prior to the use of actual coins. These bronze bars were traded by weight on the Italian peninsula. The “rude” bars were eventually surpassed by marked bars (Aes Signatum).1 commentsLucas H

001.2 Aes RudeRoman Republic. c. 5th-3rd C. BC. Found turn of the century excavations around Mt. Ingino, Gubbio, Umbria.
(19.37 grams. 21x20x7 mm). Thurlow and Vecchi, plate #2, discussed page 15. Ex Warren Esty.

Aes rude means rough bronze, and prior to the use of actual coins, these bronze bars were traded by weight on the Italian peninsula. The “rude” bars were eventually given markings (Aes Signa).2 commentsLucas H

001j2. OctavianOctavian
AR Quinarius.
14mm, 1.31 g.
Uncertain Italian mint, 29-27 BC.
Obv: CAESAR IMP VII, bare head right.
Rev: ASIA RECEPTA, Victory standing left on cista mystica between two serpents erect.
BMCRE 647, RSC 14, RIC 276.lawrence c

0042 - Denarius Antoninus Pius 140 ACObv/ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP, Antoninus Pius laureate head r.
Rev/TR P COS III, ITALIA in ex., Italia, towered, seated l. on globe, holding cornucopiae and sceptre.

Ag, 18.0mm, 3.36g
Mint: Rome.
RIC III/98c [C] - RCV 4088 - BMCRE 246 - RSC 466
ex-Freeman & Sear, lot R66901 commentsdafnis

005. Mn. Fonteius, CfDenarius, ca 85-84 BC, Auxiliary Italian mint.
Obverse: MN FONTEI CF / Bust of Vejovis with hair in loose locks; thunderbolt below; AP monogram under chin.
Reverse: Winged Cupid or Genius seated on goat; caps of the Dioscuri above; thyrsus with fillet below; all within a laurel wreath.
3.89 gm., 20 mm.
Syd. #724; RSC #Fonteia 9; Sear #271.

Vejovis was an ancient deity whose early function was forgotten. At his shrine in Rome, his statue portrayed him as a young beardless youth with a goat. By the time this coin was issued, he was identified with Pluto, the god of the underworld. He was probably a god of expiation since a goat was sacrificed to him once a year. We know from other sources that this goat sacrifice was expiatory in nature.Callimachus

0083 - Republic, Didrachm (Quadrigatus)Rome or other italian mint, c 215-211 BC
Laureate janiform head of Dioscuri
ROMA in relief in linear frame at exergue, Jupiter, holding thunderbolt in right hand and scepter in left, in fast quadriga driven right by Victory.
6,69 gr - 20-21 mm
Ref : RCV #33, RSC # 243 commentsPotator II

01 Julius Caesar, VenusJulius Caesar. AR Denarius. Military mint traveling with Caesar in North Africa c. 47-46B.C. (3.88, 19.2mm, 6h). Obv: Diademed head of Venus right. Rev: CAESAR, Aeneas walking left, carrying Anchises and the Palladium. Craw. 458/1. RSC 12, Sear RCV 1402.

Minted to pay his legends during their African campaign against the Pomeians, this coin harkens to Caesar’s mythical origin from Venus. Aeneas, a survivor of Troy, was the son of Aphrodite’s liaison with the mortal Anchises. Aeneas lead a group of survivors, the Aeneads, ultimately to the Italian peninsula.1 commentsLucas H

02 - 01 - Julio Cesar (49 - 44 A.C.)AR Denario 18,35 mm de 3,42 gr.

Anv: Emblemas sacerdotales, Simpulum (Copa pequeña con mango), aspergillum/aspersorio (Instrumento para espolvorear o rociar), securix (Hacha sacrificial), apex (gorro/bonete usado por los sacerdotes de Júpiter).
Rev: Elefante pisando un carnix (Instrumento musical galo), CAESAR en exergo.

Acuñada durante los años 49 - 48 A.C.
Ceca: Movil legionaria durante sus campañas probablemente en la Galia, Italia y/o Hispania.

Referencias: Craw. 443/1 - Syd. #1006 - BMCRR #27 - RSC Caesar #49 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #1399

2 commentsmdelvalle

02 - 03 - Julio Cesar (49 - 44 A.C.)AR Denario 17 mm de 3,51 gr.

Anv: ANEPIGRAFA - Busto diademado de Venus a der. Cupido detrás de su hombro.
Rev: Dos cautivos sentados a los lados de un trofeo de armas Galo, con escudo ovalado y Carnix en cada brazo, CAESAR en exergo.

Acuñada durante los años 46 - 45 A.C.
Ceca: Movil legionaria durante sus campañas probablemente en la Galia, Italia y/o Hispania.

Referencias: Babelon Julia #11 - Sear CRI #58 - Craw. 468/1 - Syd. #1014 - BMCRR Spain #89 - RSC Vol.I Caesar #13 Pag.107 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #1404 Pag.269 - Cohen Vol.I #13 Pag.10

mdelvalle

02 Octavian RIC I 266Octavian. AR Denarius. Italian Mint, possibly Rome. Autumn 30- summer 29 B.C. (3.45g, 19.8mm, 2h). Obv: Bare head right. Rev: IMP CAESAR on architrave of the Roman Senate House (Curia Julia), with porch supported by four short columns, statue of Victory on globe surmounting apex of roof, and statues of standing figures at the extremities of the architrave. CRI 421; RIC I 266; RSC 122.. Ex Andrew McCabe.1 commentsLucas H

026a. Septimius SeverusAugustus 193-211

North African of Punic and Italian origin. Governor of Pannonia when troops proclaimed him Augustus. Defeated other two claimants to throne. Active campaigner as Augustus, with victories against Parthia and in Arabia and Britain. Very hostile to Senate. Died of illness during campaign in York. His governing philosophy could be summed up in his reported words to his sons on his death bed: "be harmonious with each other, be generous to the soldiers, and take no heed of anyone else."lawrence c

040b Commodus. AE Sestertius 21.7gmobv: M COMMODVS ANTON AVG PIVS BRIT laur. head r.
rev: PM TR PX IMP VIII COS IIII PP / SC Italia seated l. on globe,
holding cornucopiae and scepter
ex: ITALIAhill132

044 - Hadrian Denarius - RIC 307Obv:- HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P, bare head right.
Rev:- ITALIA, Italia standing left holding scepter and cornucopia
Minted in Rome. A.D. 136
Reference:- RIC II 307; BMCRE III 853; RSC 869.1 commentsmaridvnvm

048 - Antoninus Pius, Ae Sestertius - RIC 789 Obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P, laureate head right
Rev: TR POT COS [IIII / ITALIA], S-C, Italia, towered, draped, seated left on globe, holding cornucopiae in right hand and sceptre, nearly vertical in left.
Minted in Rome. A.D. 145-161
Reference(s) - BMC 1719. Cohen 472. RIC III 789 (Rated S) citing Cohen.maridvnvm

051 - Marcus Aurelius Sestertius - RIC III 1078Obv:- M ANTONINVS AVG TR P XXVII, laureate head right, slight drapery on left shoulder
Rev:- RESTITVTORI ITALIAE IMP VI COS III / S C, Aurelius standing left holding sceptre and raising kneeling figure of Italia who holds a globe
Minted in Rome mint. Dec. A.D. 172 - Dec. A.D. 173
Reference:- BMCRE 1449 note (light drapery). RIC III 1078. Both cite Bement Coll. 1031 (rated Scarce).

Commemorating the successes of the Quadic war on the northern edges of Italy with the Germans.

27.27g, 34.27mm, 180omaridvnvm

056/3 Spanish imitation in good styleAnonymous. Ae Semis. Second or first century BC. (6.58 g, 20.55 mm) Obv: Laureate head of Saturn r.; behind, S. Rev: Prow r.; above, S and below, ROMA.
Syd 143a; Crawford 56/3

In 1982 a conference report was published that contained a joint debate between Crawford and the Spanish numismatist Villaronga. Villaronga illustrated a number of coins from site finds near Cadiz, and concluded that they were good style Spanish imitations. Every year about 10 or 20 similar coins appear on the Spanish market, but none appear in Italian sources.

Thank you Mccabe for helping with the attribution.
Paddy

06 - Antoninus Pius - AR Denarius - ITALIARoman Empire
Emperor Antoninus Pius (138 - 161 AD)
Silver Denarius. Rome Mint. Struck 140 AD.

obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P COS III - laureate head right.

rev: ITA LIA - Italia in turreted crown, seated left on globe with cornucopiae & scepter.

weight: 3.1grams 4 commentsrexesq

06 - Antoninus Pius - AR Denarius - ITALIA - obvRoman Empire
Emperor Antoninus Pius (138 - 161 AD)
Silver Denarius. Rome Mint. Struck 140 AD.

obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P COS III - laureate head right.

rev: ITA LIA - Italia in turreted crown, seated left on globe with cornucopiae & scepter.

weight: 3.1gramsrexesq

06 - Antoninus Pius - AR Denarius - ITALIA - revRoman Empire
Emperor Antoninus Pius (138 - 161 AD)
Silver Denarius. Rome Mint. Struck 140 AD.

obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P COS III - laureate head right.

rev: ITA LIA - Italia in turreted crown, seated left on globe with cornucopiae & scepter.

weight: 3.1gramsrexesq

064 - Septimius Severus denarius - RIC -Obv:– IMP CAE L SEP SEV PERT AVG, Laureate head right
Rev:– TR P IIII IMP II COS, Mars standing right, resting on spear and shield
Minted in Alexandria, A.D. 194
References:– BMCRE -, RIC -, RSC -. cf. RIN (Rivista Italiana di Nvmismatica Vol. XCVI (1994/1995)

Old image.4 commentsmaridvnvm

064 - Septimius Severus denarius - RIC -Obv:- IMP CAE L SEP SEV PERT AVG, Laureate head right
Rev:- TR P IIII IMP II COS II, Mars standing right, resting on spear and shield
Minted in Alexandria, A.D. 194
References:- BMCRE -, RIC -, RSC -. RIN (Rivista Italiana di Nvmismatica Vol. XCVI (1994/1995)

2.72g. 17.78mm. 0o

Additional information from Curtis Clay:-
"Die match to example in British Museum, found at the site of a Roman villa in Kent, GB, in 1952. The same obv. die also occurs with the types MONETA AVG and LEG III IT AVG TR P COS.
Bickford-Smith recorded three other specimens, of which I also have plaster casts: his own coll. (probably now in BM), Klosterneuburg, and U.S. private collection. On these the rev. legend apparently ends COS rather than COS II.
This type was clearly struck in 194, when Septimius was TR P II and IMP III or IIII, so TR P IIII IMP II in the rev. legend is an error, the origin of which is obvious: the type is a rote copy of the identical type and legend on denarii of Lucius Verus of 164, Cohen 228-9. The titles apply to Lucius in 164, not Septimius in 194!" maridvnvm

064 - Septimius Severus denarius - RIC -Obv:- IMP CAE L SEP SEV PERT AVG, Laureate head right
Rev:- TR P IIII IMP II COS, Mars standing right, resting on spear and shield
Minted in Alexandria, A.D. 194
References:- BMCRE -, RIC -, RSC -. cf. RIN (Rivista Italiana di Nvmismatica Vol. XCVI (1994/1995)

2.59g. 18.71mm. 0o

Additional information courtesy of Curtis Clay:-

"Bickford-Smith recorded three other specimens, of which I also have plaster casts: his own coll. (probably now in BM), Klosterneuburg, and U.S. private collection. On these the rev. legend apparently ends COS rather than COS II.
This type was clearly struck in 194, when Septimius was TR P II and IMP III or IIII, so TR P IIII IMP II in the rev. legend is an error, the origin of which is obvious: the type is a rote copy of the identical type and legend on denarii of Lucius Verus of 164, Cohen 228-9. The titles apply to Lucius in 164, not Septimius in 194!" maridvnvm

064 - Septimius Severus denarius - RIC -Obv:- IMP CAE L SEP SEV PERT AVG, Laureate head right
Rev:- TR P IIII IMP II COS, Mars standing right, resting on spear and shield
Minted in Alexandria, A.D. 194
References:- BMCRE -, RIC -, RSC -. cf. RIN (Rivista Italiana di Nvmismatica Vol. XCVI (1994/1995)

Additional information courtesy of Curtis Clay:-

"Bickford-Smith recorded three other specimens, of which I also have plaster casts: his own coll. (probably now in BM), Klosterneuburg, and U.S. private collection. On these the rev. legend apparently ends COS rather than COS II.
This type was clearly struck in 194, when Septimius was TR P II and IMP III or IIII, so TR P IIII IMP II in the rev. legend is an error, the origin of which is obvious: the type is a rote copy of the identical type and legend on denarii of Lucius Verus of 164, Cohen 228-9. The titles apply to Lucius in 164, not Septimius in 194!" maridvnvm

098-117 AD - TRAJAN AR denarius - struck 112-114 ADobv: IMP TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS VI PP (laureate bust right, slight drapery on left shoulder)
rev: SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI (Abundantia standing left, holding cornucopiae and grain ears; at her feet, a child holding a roll), in ex. ALIM ITAL [Alimenta Italiae]
ref: RIC II 243, C.9 (3frcs)
mint: Rome
2.91gms, 19mm

The Alimenta was a welfare program for poor children and orphans. Credit for designing the program is usually attributed to Nerva, but it was increased and formally organized under Trajan. The Alimenta was funded from several sources. Probably, money from the Dacian Wars was used to initially underwrite the program; however, the long-term existence of the program was insured through 5% interest paid by wealthy landowners on loans and estate taxes. Philanthropy was also encouraged and contributed to the total funding.
Under Alimenta, boys of freemen received 16 sesterces monthly, girls received 12, while children borne out of wedlock received a bit less. The Alimenta was supplemented with a special young girls foundation initiated by Antoninus Pius in honor of his deceased wife Faustina. Municipal magistrates administered the alimentary funds and in turn were supervised by imperial clerks who had the status of knights. 1 commentsberserker

0aa Defeat of Hannibal on Sicily, 222 BCCn. Lentulus, moneyer
90-85 BC

Quinarius

Laureled head of Jupiter, right
Victory crowning trophy, CN LENT in ex

Seaby, Cornelia 51

Possibly a reference to this event: [Q. Fabius Maximus, afterwards called Cunctator] broke up his camp at Suessula and decided to begin by an attack on Arpi. . . . Now at last the enemy was roused; there was a lull in the storm and daylight was approaching. Hannibal's garrison in the city amounted to about 5000 men, and the citizens themselves had raised a force of 3000. These the Carthaginians put in front to meet the enemy, that there might be no attempt at treachery in their rear. The fighting began in the dark in the narrow streets, the Romans having occupied not only the streets near the gate but the houses also, that they might not be assailed from the roofs. Gradually as it grew light some of the citizen troops and some of the Romans recognised one another, and entered into conversation. The Roman soldiers asked what it was that the Arpinians wanted, what wrong had Rome done them, what good service had Carthage rendered them that they, Italians-bred and born, should fight against their old friends the Romans on behalf of foreigners and barbarians, and wish to make Italy a tributary province of Africa. The people of Arpi urged in their excuse that they knew nothing of what was going on, they had in fact been sold by their leaders to the Carthaginians, they had been victimised and enslaved by a small oligarchy. When a beginning had been once made the conversations became more and more general; at last the praetor of Arpi was conducted by his friends to the consul, and after they had given each other mutual assurances, surrounded by the troops under their standards, the citizens suddenly turned against the Carthaginians and fought for the Romans. A body of Spaniards also, numbering something less than a thousand, transferred their services to the consul upon the sole condition that the Carthaginian garrison should be allowed to depart uninjured. The gates were opened for them and they were dismissed, according to the stipulation, in perfect safety, and went to Hannibal at Salapia. Thus Arpi was restored to the Romans without the loss of a single life, except in the case of one man who had long ago been a traitor and had recently deserted. The Spaniards were ordered to receive double rations, and the republic availed itself on very many occasions of their courage and fidelity.

Livy, History of Rome, 24.46-47Blindado

10-01 - CLAUDIO (41 - 54 D.C.)AR Denario 3.13 grs.

Anv: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. GERM. P. M. TRIB. POT. P. P.. Cabeza laureada de Claudio a derecha.
Rev: AGRIPPINAE AVGVSTAE. Busto de Agripina a derecha con corona de espigas.

Julia Vipsania Agripina , más conocida cómo Agripina la Menor para distinguirla de su madre, fue la hija mayor de Germánico y Agripina la Mayor, bisnieta por tanto de Marco Antonio y Octavia. Fue además Esposa de Ahenobarbo, hermana de Calígula, mujer y sobrina de Claudio I y madre de Nerón.

Acuñada 50 - 54 D.C.
Ceca: Roma Italia
Rareza: R

Referencias: RIC Vol.1 #81 Pag.126 (Plate.16) - Sear RCTV Vol.1 #1886 Pag.371 - BMCRE Vol.1 #75 - Cohen Vol.1 (Agrippine et Claude) #4 Pag.274 - DVM #27 Pag.84 - CBN #82 - RSC Vol. II #4 Pag.113 commentsmdelvalle

10-01 - CLAUDIO y AGRIPINA Jr. (41 - 54 D.C.)AR Denario 20.0 mm 3.13 grs.

Anv: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. GERM. P. M. TRIB. POT. P. P.. Cabeza laureada de Claudio a derecha.
Rev: AGRIPPINAE AVGVSTAE. Busto de Agripina a derecha con corona de espigas.

Julia Vipsania Agripina , más conocida cómo Agripina la Menor para distinguirla de su madre, fue la hija mayor de Germánico y Agripina la Mayor, bisnieta por tanto de Marco Antonio y Octavia. Fue además Esposa de Ahenobarbo, hermana de Calígula, mujer y sobrina de Claudio I y madre de Nerón.

Acuñada 50 - 54 D.C.
Ceca: Roma Italia
Rareza: R

Referencias: RIC Vol.1 #81 Pag.126 (Plate.16) - Sear RCTV Vol.1 #1886 Pag.371 - BMCRE Vol.1 #75 - Cohen Vol.1 (Agrippine et Claude) #4 Pag.274 - DVM #27 Pag.84 - CBN #82 - RSC Vol. II #4 Pag.111 commentsmdelvalle

1303a, Galerius, 1 March 305 - 5 May 311 A.D.Galerius, RIC VI 59, Cyzicus S, VF, Cyzicus S, 6.4 g, 25.86 mm; 309-310 AD; Obverse: GAL MAXIMIANVS P F AVG, laureate bust right; Reverse: GENIO A-VGVS[TI], Genius stg. left, naked but for chlamys over left shoulder, holding patera and cornucopiae. A nice example with sharp detail and nice brown hoard patina. Ex Ancient Imports.

De Imperatoribus Romanis,
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

Galerius (305-311 A.D.)

Michael DiMaio, Jr.
Salve Regina University

Caius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, more commonly known as Galerius, was from Illyricum; his father, whose name is unknown, was of peasant stock, while his mother, Romula, was from beyond the Danube. Galerius was born in Dacia Ripensis near Sardica. Although the date of his birth is unknown, he was probably born ca. 250 since he served under Aurelian. As a youth Galerius was a shepherd and acquired the nickname Armentarius. Although he seems to have started his military career under Aurelian and Probus, nothing is known about it before his accession as Caesar on 1 March 293. He served as Diocletian's Caesar in the East. Abandoning his first wife, he married Diocletian's daugher, Valeria.

As Caesar he campaigned in Egypt in 294; he seems to have taken to the field against Narses of Persia, and was defeated near Ctesiphon in 295. In 298, after he made inroads into Armenia, he obtained a treaty from the Persians favorable to the Romans. Between 299-305 he overcame the Sarmatians and the Carpi along the Danube. The Great Persecution of the Orthodox Church, which was started in 303 by the Emperor Diocletian, was probably instigated by Galerius. Because of the almost fatal illness that he contracted toward the end of 304, Diocletian, at Nicomedeia, and Maximianus Herculius, at Mediolanum, divested themselves of the purple on 1 May 305. Constantius and Galerius were appointed as Augusti, with Maximinus Daia and Severus as the new Caesars. Constantius and Severus reigned in the West, whereas Galerius' and Daia's realm was the East. Although Constantius was nominally senior Augustus, the real power was in the hands of Galerius because both Caesars were his creatures.

The balance of power shifted at the end of July 306 when Constantius, with his son Constantine at his side, passed away at York in Britain where he was preparing to face incursions by the Picts; his army proclaimed Constantine his successor immediately. As soon as he received the news of the death of Constantius I and the acclamation of Constantine to the purple, Galerius raised Severus to the rank of Augustus to replace his dead colleague in August 306. Making the best of a bad situation, Galerius accepted Constantine as the new Caesar in the West. The situation became more complicated when Maxentius, with his father Maximianus Herculius acquiesing, declared himself princes on 28 October 306. When Galerius learned about the acclamation of the usurper, he dispatched the Emperor Severus to put down the rebellion. Severus took a large field army which had formerly been that of Maximianus and proceeded toward Rome and began to besiege the city, Maxentius, however, and Maximianus, by means of a ruse, convinced Severus to surrender. Later, in 307, Severus was put to death under clouded circumstances. While Severus was fighting in the west, Galerius, during late 306 or early 307, was campaigning against the Sarmatians.

In the early summer of 307 Galerius invaded Italy to avenge Severus's death; he advanced to the south and encamped at Interamna near the Tiber. His attempt to besiege the city was abortive because his army was too small to encompass the city's fortifications. Not trusting his own troops, Galerius withdrew. During its retreat, his army ravaged the Italian countryside as it was returning to its original base. When Maximianus Herculius' attempts to regain the throne between 308 and 310 by pushing his son off his throne or by winning over Constantine to his cause failed, he tried to win Diocletian and Galerius over to his side at Carnuntum in October and November 308; the outcome of the Conference at Carnuntum was that Licinius was appointed Augustus in Severus's place, that Daia and Constantine were denoted filii Augustorum, and that Herculius was completely cut out of the picture. Later, in 310, Herculius died, having been implicated in a plot against his son-in-law. After the Conference at Carnuntum, Galerius returned to Sardica where he died in the opening days of May 311.

By Michael DiMaio, Jr., Salve Regina University; Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Galerius was Caesar and tetrarch under Maximianus. Although a talented general and administrator, Galerius is better known for his key role in the "Great Persecution" of Christians. He stopped the persecution under condition the Christians pray for his return to health from a serious illness. Galerius died horribly shortly after. Joseph Sermarini, FORVM.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

Cleisthenes

1307a, Maxentius, February 307 - 28 October 312 A.D.Bronze follis, RIC 163, aEF, Rome mint, 5.712g, 25.6mm, 0o, summer 307 A.D.; obverse MAXENTIVS P F AVG, laureate head right; reverse CONSERVATO-RES VRB SVAE, Roma holding globe and scepter, seated in hexastyle temple, RT in ex; rare. Ex FORVM; Ex Maridvnvm

De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Maxentius (306-312 A.D.)

Michael DiMaio, Jr.
Salve Regina University

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius, more commonly known as Maxentius, was the child of the Emperor Maximianus Herculius and the Syrian, Eutropia; he was born ca. 278 A.D. After Galerius' appointment to the rank of Caesar on 1 March 293, Maxentius married Galerius' daughter Valeria Maximilla, who bore him a son named Romulus and another son whose name is unknown. Due to his haughty nature and bad disposition, Maxentius could seldom agree with his father or his father-in-law; Galerius' and Maximianus Herculius' aversion to Maxentius prevented the young man from becoming a Caesar in 305. Little else is known of Maxentius' private life prior to his accession and, although there is some evidence that it was spent in idleness, he did become a Senator.

On 28 October 306 Maxentius was acclaimed emperor, although he was politically astute enough not to use the title Augustus; like the Emperor Augustus, he called himself princeps. It was not until the summer of 307 that he started using the title Augustus and started offending other claimants to the imperial throne. He was enthroned by the plebs and the Praetorians. At the time of his acclamation Maxentius was at a public villa on the Via Labicana. He strengthened his position with promises of riches for those who helped him obtain his objective. He forced his father Maximianus Herculius to affirm his son's acclamation in order to give his regime a facade of legitimacy. His realm included Italy, Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica. As soon as Galerius learned about the acclamation of Herculius' son, he dispatched the Emperor Severus to quell the rebellion. With the help of his father and Severus' own troops, Maxentius' took his enemy prisoner.

When Severus died, Galerius was determined to avenge his death. In the early summer of 307 the Augustus invaded Italy; he advanced to the south and encamped at Interamna near the Tiber. His attempt to besiege the city was abortive because his army was not large enough to encompass the city's fortifications. Negotiations between Maxentius and Galerius broke down when the emperor discovered that the usurper was trying to win over his troops. Galerius' troops were open to Maxentius' promises because they were fighting a civil war between members of the same family; some of the soldiers went over to the enemy. Not trusting his own troops, Galerius withdrew. During its retreat, Galerius' army ravaged the Italian countryside as it was returning to its original base. If it was not enough that Maxentius had to deal with the havoc created by the ineffectual invasions of Severus and Galerius, he also had to deal with his father's attempts to regain the throne between 308 and 310. When Maximianus Herculius was unable to regain power by pushing his son off his throne, he attempted to win over Constantine to his cause. When this plan failed, he tried to win Diocletian over to his side at Carnuntum in October and November 308. Frustrated at every turn, Herculius returned to his son-in-law Constantine's side in Gaul where he died in 310, having been implicated in a plot against his son-in-law. Maxentius' control of the situation was weakened by the revolt of L. Domitius Alexander in 308. Although the revolt only lasted until the end of 309, it drastically cut the size of the grain supply availble for Rome. Maxentius' rule collapsed when he died on 27 October 312 in an engagement he had with the Emperor Constantine at the Milvian Bridge after the latter had invaded his realm.

Copyright (C) 1996, Michael DiMaio, Jr.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.
1 commentsCleisthenes

138-161 AD - ANTONINUS PIUS AR denarius - struck 140-143 ADobv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P COS III (laureate head right)
rev: ITALIA (Italia, towered, seated left on globe, holding cornucopiae and sceptre)
ref: RIC III 73 (C), RSC463 (5frcs), BMC 214
mint: Rome
2.63gms, 18mm,
Scarce

Antoninus had been entrusted with the government of this province as proconsul. He was chosen by Hadrian from among the four men of consular rank under whose jurisdiction Italy was placed, to administer that particular part of Italy in which the greater part of his own holdings lay. The coin probably commemorate this.berserker

14 - 15 - NERON (54 - 68 D.C.)AR Denario 18,6 mm 3,32 g.

Anv: IMP NERO CAESAR AVG P P - Cabeza laureada a derecha.
Rev: ANEPÍGRAFA - Águila legionaria entre dos estandartes.

Esta emisión se realiza para conmemorar una invasión planeada del Cáucaso que se anticipó por la muerte de Neron. Para encabezar la invasión, Neron creó una nueva legión, "La Legión de Alejandro el Grande", estaba compuesta de reclutas italianos que midieran más de 1,80 mts. de alto.

Acuñada: 67 - 68 D.C.
Ceca: Roma
Rareza: R2

Referencias: RIC I #68 pag.154 - Cohen I #356 - BMCRE I #107 - CBN #238 - DVN #4 Pag.84 - RSC II #3561 commentsmdelvalle

14-05 - NERON (54 - 68 D.C.)AR Denario 18,6 mm 3,32 g.

Anv: IMP NERO CAESAR AVG P P - Cabeza laureada a derecha.
Rev: ANEPÍGRAFA - Águila legionaria entre dos estandartes.

Esta emisión se realiza para conmemorar una invasión planeada del Cáucaso que se anticipó por la muerte de Neron. Para encabezar la invasión, Neron creó una nueva legión, "La Legión de Alejandro el Grande", estaba compuesta de reclutas italianos que midieran más de 1,80 mts. de alto.

Acuñada: 67 - 68 D.C.
Ceca: Roma
Rareza: R2

Referencias: RIC I #68 pag.154 - Cohen I #356 Pag.303 - BMCRE I #107 - CBN #238 - DVN #4 Pag.84 - RSC II #356 Pag.16 - Sear RCTV I #1947 Pag.384mdelvalle

1541 Hadrian Denarius Roma 130-138 ItaliaReference.
RIC II, 307a; RIC III, 1541; Strack 305

Bust A1+

Obv. HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P
Bare head

Rev. ITALIA
Italy standing left, scepter and cornucopia

3.2 gr
19 mm
6hokidoki

1550B MYSIA. Lampsacus Hadrian, Priapus RPC III, 1550B 1550 Trajan; same SNG France 1272; BMC Mysia -, SNG BnF -, SNG Cop

Obv. AΔIANOC KAICAP
Laureate and cuirassed bust of Hadrian right

Rev. ΛΑΜΨΑΚΗΝωΝ
ithyphallic Priapus standing left, right hand raised, left hand on hip

1.55 gr
15 mm
6h

Note.
Priapus or Priapos was a minor rustic fertility god, protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens and male genitalia. Priapus is marked by his absurdly oversized permanent erection, which gave rise to the medical term priapism. He became a popular figure in Roman erotic art and Latin literature, and is the subject of the often humorously obscene collection of verse called the Priapeia. Statues of Priapus were sometimes placed on boundaries and hung with signs which threatened sexual assault on trespassers.
FORVM coinokidoki

161-180 AD - MARCUS AURELIUS AE sestertius - struck 173 ADobv: M ANTONINVS AVG TR P XXVII (laureated bearded head right)
rev: [RESTITVTORI ITALIAE IMP VI COS III S C] (Aurelius standing left holding sceptre and raising kneeling figure of Italia who holds a globe)
ref: RIC 1077 (S), Cohen 538 (10frcs), BMC 1449
21.80gms, 29mm,
Rare

Aurelius is here portrayed as the Restorer of Italy. Although this type is normally used to refer to a defeated enemy, in this instance what Aurelius is restoring is the security of the homeland by defeating the Germanic tribes threatening Italy.
berserker

1672, Prise de douze villes en HollandeObv. Draped and cuirassed bust right LVD MAG FRA ET NAV REX PP, CHERON on bust truncation.
Rev. The King in the guise of Sol, radiating light, seated right in a heavenly chariot pulled by three horses, surrounded by clouds. Around are aerlia views of twelve towns and forts captured in Holland SOLIS QVE LABORES on scroll above central design, the names of all twelve towns/forts around.

AE63. Engraved by Charles Jean Francois Cheron. ORIGINAL STRIKE, very rare.

Charles Jean Francois Cheron (1635-1698), one of the most distinguished artists of the school of Jean Warin, was born at Nancy and was trained by his father, Jean-Charles Cheron, engraver to Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. Cheron went to Rome and became engraver of medals for Clement IX and Innocent X. Cheron's style in his Roman medals is of remarkable boldness, and his medals of Pope Clement IX and of Bernini are grandiloquent and among the finest Italian medals of the period. He returned to France in 1675 and was employed by Louis XIV at the Medal Mint at Paris for about twelve years, where he contributed several medals to the medallic series of the monarch, the Histoire Metallique. His medals are considered to be in an international baroque style.
11 commentsLordBest

17-01 - LUCIUS FARSULEIUS MENSOR (75 A.C.)AR Denarius 18 mm 2.6 gr ?
Anv: Busto con vestido, diadema, aro y collar de Libertas (Libertad) viendo a derecha - "S C" sobre "Pileus" (Gorro usado por los esclavos) detrás del busto.
Rev: Roma en biga avanzando a derecha, ayudando a un ciudadano con toga a subir al carruaje. Marca de control bajo los caballos. "L•FARSVLEI" en Exergo.
Esta moneda presumiblemente alude a la Lex Julia (90 A.C), que confería derechos de ciudadano a todos los italianos.

Ceca: Roma
Referencias: Sear RCTV Vol.1 #329 Pag.134 - Craw RRC #392/1b - Syd CRR #789 -BMCRR #3293-3305 - RSC Vol.1 Farsuleia 2 Pag.47mdelvalle

17-01 - LUCIUS FARSULEIUS MENSOR (75 A.C.)AR Denarius 18 mm 2.6 gr ?

Anv: Busto con vestido, diadema, aro y collar de Libertas (Libertad) viendo a derecha - "S C" sobre "Pileus" (Gorro usado por los esclavos) detrás del busto.
Rev: Roma en biga avanzando a derecha, ayudando a un ciudadano con toga a subir al carruaje. Marca de control bajo los caballos. "L•FARSVLEI" en Exergo.
Esta moneda presumiblemente alude a la Lex Julia (90 A.C), que confería derechos de ciudadano a todos los italianos.

Ceca: Roma
Referencias: Sear RCTV Vol.1 #329 Pag.134 - Craw RRC #392/1b - Syd CRR #789 -BMCRR #3293-3305 - RSC Vol.1 Farsuleia 2 Pag.47mdelvalle

1749 - Octavian, DenariusItalian mint, possibly Rome, 31-30 BC
Anepigraph, bare head of Octavian left
CAESAR - DIVI F, Victory standing right on globe, holding wreath
3.84 gr
Ref : HCRI # 408, RCV # 1552v, Cohen # 66, RIC # 255
The following comment is taken from CNG, sale 84 # 957 :
"Following his victory at Actium, Octavian ordered a golden statue of Victory, standing on a globe and holding a wreath and palm, to be set up on an altar in the Curia in Rome. This statue had been captured by the Romans from Pyrrhus in 272 BC, and it assumed a somewhat tutelary mystique, protecting the Roman state from dissolution. In AD 382, the emperor Gratian ordered its removal. Two years later, the senator and orator Symmachus urged Valentinian II to replace it, a request that was met with stiff opposition from the bishop of Milan, Ambrose. Though it was briefly returned to its place by the usurper Eugenius, it was again removed following his defeat. Petitions to Theodosius I for its subsequent replacement were refused, on grounds that the once-important symbol of the gods’ blessing on the Roman Empire was now nothing more than a piece of paganism"11 commentsPotator II

1761 Hadrian Sestertius Roma 130-38 AD Hadrian standing vis-à-vis ItaliaReference.
RIC II, 888c, Banti 34; Strack 751; RIC III, 1761

Bust C2+

Obv. HADRIANVS COS III P P
Bare head draped bust, viewed from side

Rev. ADVENTVI AVG ITALIAE S C in ex.
Hadrian standing right, one hand raised in gesture of address and the other holding scroll: facing him is Italia standing left holding patera over altar placed in the centre, and also holding cornucopia Victim bull at foot of altar

26.43 gr
34 mm
12h2 commentsokidoki

1761 Hadrian Sestertius Roma 130-38 AD Hadrian standing vis-à-vis ItaliaReference.
RIC II, 888c, Banti 34; Strack 751; RIC 1761

Bust C2+

Obv. HADRIANVS COS III P P
Bare head, draped bust viewed from side

Rev. ADVENTVI AVG ITALIAE S C in ex.
Hadrian standing right, one hand raised in gesture of adres and the other holding scroll: facing him is Italia standing left holding patera over altar placed in the centre, and also holding cornucopia bull at foor of altar

23.00 gr
32 mm
6h3 commentsokidoki

1769 Hadrian Sestertius Roma 130-38 AD Hadrian standing vis-à-vis JudaeaReference.
RIC 1769; Strack 755; Banti 37

Bust C2+

Obv. HADRIANVS COS III P P
Bare head draped bust, viewed from side

Rev. ADVENTUI AVG IVDAEAE; S C in ex.
Hadrian standing right, one hand raised in gesture of address and the other holding scroll: facing him is Italia standing left holding patera over altar placed in the centre, and also holding incense box. Two children stand by her feet. Victim bull at foot of altar

26.16 gr
31 mm
12h

Note.

Hadrian’s arrival in Judaea is commemorated on a very rare ADVENTUS sestertius. On the reverse, the emperor greets the figure of Judaea sacrificing over a pagan altar, accompanied by two children. It would be hard to imagine an image more offensive to Jewish sensibilities.

Hadrian made a brief visit to Judaea circa AD 130, during his second great provincial tour of AD 129-132. Prior to his arrival, rumors spread among the Jews that he intended to rebuild Jerusalem and the great Temple, destroyed during the Jewish War of AD 66-73, so he was at first warmly welcomed. However, Hadrian decided to rebuild the city as the Roman veteran colony of Aelia Capitolina, with a temple to Jupiter replacing the one once dedicated to Jehovah. This ultimately sparked the bloody Bar Kokhba Revolt of AD 132-135, which devastated the province and darkened Hadrian's final years. The rare coinage issued to mark his visit, with the legend ADVENTVS AVG IVDAEA ("the Emperor Enters Judaea") depicts Hadrian being greeted by a female personification of the province and two children. Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina in response to the Bar Kochba conflict, though precisely when this occurred is not known.

Judaea was the empire’s most troubled province during Hadrian’s reign. For Romans, offering ritual sacrifice to the imperial state cult was a normal civic obligation. Most ancient religions were broadly tolerant of each other’s deities, but the Jews’ fierce insistence that their one, invisible God forbade any form of idolatry in their land was a constant source of tension.2 commentsokidoki

18-07 - VESPASIANO (69 - 79 D.C.)AR Denario 19 x 17 mm 2.6 gr.

Anv: " IMP CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG" - Cabeza laureada viendo a derecha.
Rev: Judea en actitud de duelo y congoja, sentada en el suelo hacia la derecha, detrás suyo un trofeo de armas. "JVDAEA" en el exergo.

Este tipo de reverso celebra el éxito de Vespasian y Titus sofocando la primera Revuelta Judía.

Acuñada: 69 - 70 D.C.
Ceca: Roma Italia ó Tarraco España
Rareza: Común ó Rara (Según la ubicación de la ceca)

Referencias: RIC Vol.II #15D Pag.16 (Roma) ó #266 Pag.46 (Tarraco) - RIC2 #4 (Roma) ó #1316 (Tarraco) - Sear RCTV Vol.1 #2296 Pag.436 - BMCRE Vol.2 #35, 359 y 370 - Cohen Vol.1 #226 Pag.384 - DVM #32 Pag.101 - CBN #23 - RSC Vol. II #226 Pag.43 – Hendin #759 Pag.319
mdelvalle

1876 Hadrian Sestertius Roma 130-38 AD ItaliaReference.
RIC II, 956; BMCRE 1823; Cohen 1275; Banti --: Strack 779; RIC 1876 pl

Bust C2+ Lion

Obv. HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P
Bare head with lions trophy around neck

Rev. RESTITVTORI ITALIAE,
Hadrian standing right, holding scroll and raising up kneeling Italia, who holds a cornucopia

25.17 gr
31 mm
6h2 commentsokidoki

2. Octavian (31-30 BC)Denomination: AR Denarius
Date: 31-30 BC.
Obv: Bare head left.
Rev: Victory standing to left on globe, holding wreath and palm; CAESAR DIVI F across fields.
Diameter: 19mm
Weight: 3.96 grams
Mint: Italian mint (Rome?).
RIC I 54b.
Ex: Roma Numismatics E-Sale 82 (15 April 2021), lot 10782 commentsRomancollector

22121 Commodus/ItaliaCommodus/Italia
Copper Sestertius
Obv: M COMMODVS ANTON AVG BRIT –
Laureate head right
Rev: P M TR P
VIIII IMP VII COS IIII P P S-C –
Italia, towered, seated left on
globe, holding cornucopia and scepter.
ITALIA in Exergue
Mint: Rome AD 184 29.2mm 20.59g
RIC III, 438 Cohen 266 Blayne W

24-04 - TRAJANO (98 - 171 D.C.)AR Denario 18 mm 2.9 gr.

Anv: "IMP TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS VI P P" - Busto laureado viendo a derecha, leve ropaje en hombro trasero.
Rev: "SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI" - Abundantia (La Abundancia) de pié de frente viendo a izquierda, portando espigas de maiz en mano derecha y cornucopia en izquierda. A sus pies un niño parado sosteniendo un panecillo. "ALIM ITAL"
Refiere a los Programas de caridad de Trajano para los niños pobres de Italia

Acuñada 112 - 117 D.C.
Ceca: Roma

Referencias: RIC Vol.II #243 Pag.261 - RSC Vol.II #9 Pag. 83 - BMCRE #469 - Cohen Vol.II #9 Pag.18 - DVM #33 Pag.121 - St. Vol.I #172mdelvalle

24-05 - TRAJANO (98 - 171 D.C.)AR Denario 18 mm 2.9 gr.

Anv: "IMP TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS VI P P" - Busto laureado viendo a derecha, leve ropaje en hombro trasero.
Rev: "SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI" - Abundantia (La Abundancia) de pié de frente viendo a izquierda, portando espigas de maiz en mano derecha y cornucopia en izquierda. A sus pies un niño parado sosteniendo un panecillo. "ALIM ITAL"
Refiere a los Programas de caridad de Trajano para los niños pobres de Italia

Acuñada 112 - 117 D.C.
Ceca: Roma

Referencias: RIC Vol.II #243 Pag.261 - RSC Vol.II #9 Pag. 83 - BMCRE #469 - Cohen Vol.II #9 Pag.18 - DVM #33 Pag.121 - St. Vol.I #172mdelvalle

3. Octavian (30-29 BC)Denomination: AR Denarius
Date: Autumn 30-Summer 29 BC
Obv: Bare head right.
Rev: IMP CAESAR on the architrave of the Roman Senate House (Curia Julia), porch supported by four short columns, statue of Victory on globe surmounting apex of roof, statues of standing figures at the extremities of the architrave.
Diameter: 20.1mm
Weight: 3.83 grams
Mint: Italian mint (Rome?)
RIC I 266
Ex: Apollo NumismaticsRomancollector

3.13 Crispus: Heraclea.AE3, 324, Heraclea mint.
Obverse: CRISPVS NOB CAES / Laureate bust of Crispus.
Reverse: DOMINOR . NOSTROR . CAESS / Laurel wreath enclosing VOT X.
Mint mark: SMHB
2.85 gm., 18 mm.
RIC #58; PBCC & LRBC unlisted; Sear #16788.

This coin is from the first coinage minted at Heraclea after the defeat of Licinius in July 324. The unusual reverse legend was previously used at Ticinum, so this coinage from Heraclea must have somehow been influenced by that of the Italian mint.Callimachus

31-04 - ANTONINO PIO (138 - 161 D.C)Ar denario 19x17 mm 2.4 gr.

Anv: "ANTONINVS AVG - PIVS P P TR P XV” – Cabeza laureada viendo a derecha.
Rev: "COS IIII" – Vesta de pié a izquierda, portando un Simpulum en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y Paladium (Estatua de Minerva) en izquierda.

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 151 - 152 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #203 Pag.51 - DVM #18/1 Pag.135 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #4065 var Pag.210 – BMCRE Vol.4 #762 – RSC Vol. II #196 Pag.172 - Cohen Vol.II #196 Pag.292 – Strack Vol.III #244
mdelvalle

31-04 - ANTONINO PIO (138 - 161 D.C)Ar denario 19x17 mm 2.4 gr.

Anv: "ANTONINVS AVG - PIVS P P TR P XV” – Cabeza laureada viendo a derecha.
Rev: "COS IIII" – Vesta de pié a izquierda, portando un Simpulum en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y Paladium (Estatua de Minerva) en izquierda.

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 151 - 152 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #203 Pag.51 - DVM #18/1 Pag.135 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #4065 var Pag.210 – BMCRE IV #762/4 Pag.110 – RSC Vol. II #196 Pag.172 - Cohen Vol.II #196 Pag.292 – Strack Vol.III #244mdelvalle

31-06 â€“ ANTONINO PIO (138 â€“ 161 D.C)Ar denario 18x17 mm 2.6 gr.

Anv: "ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P XXII” – Cabeza laureada viendo a derecha.
Rev: "VOTA SUSCEPTA DEC III" – El Emperador con velo y toga sacerdotal de pié a izquierda, sacrificando sobre un altar/trípode con Patera en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido.”COS IIII” en exergo.
Esta acuñación refiere a los votos emprendidos en el 20 aniversario de su reinado, en las esperanzas de gobernar con éxito durante diez años más.

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 158/9 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #294b Pag.62 - DVM #61 Pag.137 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #4140 var Pag.217 – BMCRE Vol.4 #956 – RSC Vol. II #1126a Pag.189 - Cohen Vol.II #1120 var. Pag.378 – Strack Vol.III #342
mdelvalle

31-07 - ANTONINO PIO (138 - 161 D.C)Ar denario 18x17 mm 2.6 gr.
Falsificación moderna - Fundida ????

Anv: "ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P XXII” – Cabeza laureada viendo a derecha.
Rev: "VOTA SUSCEPTA DEC III" – El Emperador con velo y toga sacerdotal de pié a izquierda, sacrificando sobre un altar/trípode con Patera en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido.”COS IIII” en exergo.

Esta acuñación refiere a los votos emprendidos en el 20 aniversario de su reinado, en las esperanzas de gobernar con éxito durante diez años más.

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 158/9 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #294b Pag.62 - DVM #61 Pag.137 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #4140 var Pag.217 – BMCRE Vol.4 #956 – RSC Vol. II #1126a Pag.189 - Cohen Vol.II #1120 var. Pag.378 – Strack Vol.III #342mdelvalle

31-08a - ANTONINO PIO (138 - 161 D.C)Acuñación realizada por Marco Aurelio y Lucio Vero en honor de Antonino Pío Divo.
Ar denario 19 mm 3.1 gr.

Anv: "DIVUS ANTONINVS” – Cabeza desnuda viendo a derecha, con ropajes en su hombro izquierdo.
Rev: "CONSECRATIO" – Crematorium piramidal de 4 pisos, con la base enguirnaldada, la puerta en segundo nivel, el ápice coronado por una cuadriga vista de frente.
El Crematorium construido por Antonino Pio ya había aparecido dos décadas antes en la acuñación póstuma de su esposa, Faustina Senior. Sus restos se han descubierto cerca de la Plaza Montecitorio, el oeste del corso, en Regio IX. La estructura similar mostrada en el 169 D.C. y 176 D.C. en la acuñación de Divo Lucio Vero y Diva Faustina Junior puede representar este mismo edificio, aunque más probablemente parece que estos reversos representarían el Crematorium de Marco Aurelio que aparecería más tarde en su propia acuñación póstuma emitida por Commodo (Sear).

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 161 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #438 Pag.247 - DVM #135 Pag.141 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #5193 Pag.335 – BMCRE IV #60/3 Pag.394 –RSC Vol. II #164ª Pag.171 - Cohen Vol.II #164 var. Pag.288 – MIR Vol.18 #27mdelvalle

31-09 â€“ ANTONINO PIO (138 â€“ 161 D.C)Acuñación realizada por Marco Aurelio y Lucio Vero en honor de Antonino Pío Divo.
Ar denario 19 mm 3.1 gr.

Anv: "DIVUS ANTONINVS” – Cabeza desnuda viendo a derecha, con ropajes en su hombro izquierdo.
Rev: "CONSECRATIO" – Crematorium piramidal de 4 pisos, con la base enguirnaldada, la puerta en segundo nivel, el ápice coronado por una cuadriga vista de frente.
El Crematorium construido por Antonino Pio ya había aparecido dos décadas antes en la acuñación póstuma de su esposa, Faustina Senior. Sus restos se han descubierto cerca de la Plaza Montecitorio, el oeste del corso, en Regio IX. La estructura similar mostrada en el 169 D.C. y 176 D.C. en la acuñación de Divo Lucio Vero y Diva Faustina Junior puede representar este mismo edificio, aunque más probablemente parece que estos reversos representarían el Crematorium de Marco Aurelio que aparecería más tarde en su propia acuñación póstuma emitida por Commodo (Sear).

Ceca: Roma - Italia
Acuñada: 161 D.C.
Rareza: Común

Referencias: RIC Vol.III #438 Pag.247 - DVM #135 Pag.141 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #5193 Pag.335 – BMCRE Vol.4 #60 –RSC Vol. II #164ª Pag.171 - Cohen Vol.II #164 var. Pag.288 – MIR Vol.18 #271 commentsmdelvalle

313. Tetricus ICaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was emperor of the Gallic Empire from 270/271 to 273, following the murder of Victorinus. Tetricus, who ruled with his son, Tetricus II, was the last of the Gallic Emperors.

Tetricus was born to a noble family and held the administrative rank of praeses provinciae (provincial governor) of Aquitania at the time of Victorinus' death. Victorinus' mother, Victoria, paid the army heavily to declare Tetricus emperor near Burdigalia (Bordeaux, France), which was approved in Gaul and Britain. Following his appointment, Tetricus repelled Germanic tribes that took advantage of the confusion following the death of Victorinus to invade.

Tetricus installed his capital at Augusta Treverorum (present Trier, Germany, near the vital Rhine border, hence later seat of a Tetrarch) and appointed his son, Tetricus II, Caesar, i.e. junior emperor (273). Tetricus made no attempts to expand the Gallic Empire, other than southward, regaining Aquitania (which had rejoined the Roman empire during the reign of Claudius Gothicus).

In 273, Emperor Aurelian set out to reconquer the western Roman empire, following his victories in the east. Tetricus took his army southward from Trier to meet Aurelian, who was advancing into northern Gaul. The decisive battle took place near Châlons-sur-Marne, where Tetricus and his son surrendered to Aurelian.

According to literary sources, after being displayed as trophies at Aurelian's triumph in Rome, the lives of Tetricus and his son were spared by Aurelian and Tetricus was even given the title of corrector Lucaniae et Bruttiorum, that is governor of a region of Italia. Tetricus died at an unknown date living in Italy; he is listed as one of Rome's Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta.ecoli

3175 Hadrian, Denarius 117-130 AD, Italia Eastern MintReference.
Strack *76 (Vienna), pl. XX (same dies).; RIC III, 3175

Bust A2

Obv: HADRIANVS - AVG COS III P P
Laureate head with drapery

Rev: ITALIA
Italia standing left holding sceptre and cornucopia.

3.20 gr
19 mm
6h

Notes.
Ex Curtis L. Clay Collection; ex CNG Esale 302, 8 May 2013, lot 371. Very rare in Eastern style. Strack knew only one specimen, in Vienna; this is from the same die pair. 2 commentsokidoki

408. MaxentiusMarcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius, more commonly known as Maxentius, was the child of the Emperor Maximianus Herculius and the Syrian Eutropia; he was born ca. 278 A.D. After Galerius' appointment to the rank of Caesar on 1 March 293, Maxentius married Galerius' daughter Valeria Maximilla, who bore him a son named Romulus and another son whose name is unknown. Due to his haughty nature and bad disposition, Maxentius could seldom agree with his father or his father-in-law; Galerius' and Maximianus Herculius' aversion to Maxentius prevented the young man from becoming a Caesar in 305. Little else is known of Maxentius' private life prior to his accession and, alth ough there is some evidence that it was spent in idleness, he did become a Senator.

On 28 October 306 Maxentius was acclaimed emperor, although he was politcally astute enough not to use the title Augustus; like the Emperor Augustus, he called himself princeps. It was not until the summer of 307 that he started usi ng the title Augustus and started offending other claimants to the imperial throne. He was enthroned by the plebs and the Praetorians. At the time of his acclamation Maxentius was at a public villa on the Via Labicana. He strengthened his position with promises of riches for those who helped him obtain his objective. He forced his father Maximianus Herculius to affirm his son's acclamation in order to give his regime a facade of legitimacy. His realm included Italy, Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica. As soon as Galerius learned about the acclamation of Herculius' son, he dispatched the Emperor Severus to quell the rebellion. With the help of his father and Severus' own troops, Maxentius' took his enemy prisoner.

When Severus died, Galerius was determined to avenge his death. In the early summer of 307 the Augustus invaded Italy; he advanced to the south and encamped at Interamna near the Tiber. His attempt to besiege the city was abortive because his army was not large enough to encompass the city's fortifications. Negotiations between Maxentius and Galerius broke down when the emperor discovered that the usurper was trying to win over his troops. Galerius' troops were open to Maxentius' promises because they were fighting a civil war between members of the same family; some of the soldiers went over to the enemy. Not trusting his own troops, Galerius withdrew. During its retreat, Galerius' army ravaged the Italian countryside as it was returning to its original base. If it was not enough that Maxentius had to deal with the havoc created by the ineffectual invasions of Severus and Galerius, he also had to deal with his father's attempts to regain the throne between 308 and 310. When Maximianus Herculius was unable to regain power by pushing his son off his throne, he attempted to win over Constantine to his cause. When this plan failed, he tried to win Diocletian over to his side at Carnuntum in October and November 308. Frustrated at every turn, Herculius returned to his son-in-law Constantine's side in Gaul where he died in 310, having been implicated in a plot against his son-in-law. Maxentius' control of the situation was weakened by the revolt of L. Domitius Alexander in 308. Although the revolt only lasted until the end of 309, it drastically cut the size of the grain supply availble for Rome. Maxentius' rule collapsed when he died on 27 October 312 in an engagement he had with the Emperor Constantine at the Milvian Bridge after the latter had invaded his realm.

Maxentius Follis. Ostia mint. IMP C MAXENTIVS P F AVG, laureate head right / AETE-RNITAS A-VGN, Castor and Pollux standing facing each other, each leaning on sceptre and holding bridled horse. ecoli

5) OctavianOctavian
AR Denarius, Southern or Central Italian mint, summer 37 BC

IMP CAESAR DIVI F III VIR ITER R P C, bare head right / COS ITER ET TER DESIG, priestly implements: simpulum, sprinkler, jug & lituus.

Cr538/1, Syd 1334., Sear 1554
RM00351 commentsSosius

502. CONSTANTINE IIFlavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 - 340) was Roman Emperor (337 - 340). The eldest son of Constantine I and Fausta, he was born at Arles, and was raised as a Christian.

On March 1, 317, Constantine was made Caesar, and at the age of seven, in 323, took part in his father's campaign against the Sarmatians.

At the age of ten became commander of Gaul, after the death of his half-brother Crispus. An inscription dating to 330 records the title of Alamannicus, so it is probable that his generals won a victory over Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I elected his son field commander during the 332 campaign against the Goths.

Following the death of his father in 337, Constantine II became Emperor jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans. His section of the Empire was Gaul, Britannia and Hispania.

At first, he was the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion was Italia, Africa and Illyricum. As Constans came of age, Constantine would not relinquish the guardianship and in 340 he marched against Constans in Italy, but was defeated at Aquileia and died in battle. Constans came to control his deceased brother's realm.

CONSTANTINE II, as Caesar. 317-337 AD. Æ Reduced Follis (18mm, 2.74 gm). Siscia mint. Struck 321-324 AD. Laureate head right / VOT / X in two lines across field; all within wreath; SIS sunburst. RIC VII 182. Ex-CNGecoli

504. CONSTANTIUS IIFlavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II, (7 August 317 - 3 November 361) was a Roman Emperor (337 - 361) of the Constantinian dynasty

Constantius was the second of the three sons of Constantine I and his second wife Fausta. Constantius was born in Sirmium (in Illyricum) and named Caesar by his father. When Constantine died in 337, Constantius II led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of his grandfather Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving himself, his older brother Constantine II, his younger brother Constans and two cousins (Gallus and his half-brother Julian) as the only surviving adult males related to Constantine. The three brothers divided the Roman Empire among them, according to their father's will. Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul and Hispania; Constans ruled Italia, Africa, and Illyricum; and Constantius ruled the East.

This division changed when Constantine II died in 340, trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in 350 when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius. Until this time, Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the Sassanid Empire, and he was forced to elevate his cousin Gallus to Caesar of the East to assist him, while he turned his attention to this usurper.

Constantius eventually met and crushed Magnentius in the Battle of Mursa Major, one of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, in 351. Magnentius committed suicide in 353, and Constantius soon after put his cousin Gallus to death. However, he still could not handle the military affairs of both the Eastern and German frontiers by himself, so in 355 he elevated his last remaining relative, Julian, to Caesar. As Julian was hailed Augustus by the army in Gaul, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with violent force. As the two armies sought engagement, Constantius died from a fever near Tarsus on November 3, 361, and Julian was hailed Augustus in the whole of the Roman empire.

Constantius took an active part in the affairs of the Christian church, frequently taking the side of the Arians, and he called the Council of Rimini in 359.

Constantius married three times, first to a daughter of Julius Constantius, then to Eusebia, and last to Faustina, who gave birth to a posthumous daughter, Faustina Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian.

CONSTANTIUS II. 337-361 AD. Æ 18mm (2.41 gm). Siscia mint. Struck 351-355 AD. D N CONSTAN-TIVS P F AVG, diademed, draped and cuirassed bust right / FEL TEMP REPARATIO, soldier spearing falling enemy horseman who wears conical hat; at right, shield on ground; ASIS. RIC VIII 350. Good VF, green patina. Ex CNG1 commentsecoli

505. Constantius GallusFlavius Claudius Constantius Gallus (c. 325/326 - 354), better known as Gallus Caesar, was a member of the Constantinian dynasty and Caesar of the Eastern Roman Empire (351-354). Gallus was consul three years, from 352 to 354.

Son of Julius Constantius by his first wife Galla, Gallus' paternal grandparents were Western Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Flavia Maximiana Theodora. Julius Constantius was also a half-brother of Roman Emperor Constantine I, and thus Gallus was a first cousin of Roman Emperors Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans.

Born in Massa Veternensis, Italia, young Gallus saw his father killed by order of his cousin Constantius II.

Gallus became Caesar of the East on March 15 351, added the name of Constantius to his own, and set up residence in Antioch. In order to create a loyality bond with his Caesar, Constantius gave him his elder sister Constantina as wife. Gallus ruled the city in such a severe way that people complained to Constantius, who had him arrested. On the way to his summons he was executed.

His youger half-brother Julian became later Emperor.

Constantius Gallus. 351-354 AD. DN CONSTANTIVS IVN NOB C, bare head bust right, draped & cuirassed / FEL TEMP REPARATIO, soldier spearing fallen horseman, ASIS in ex. RIC 3512 commentsecoli

508. Julian II VOTA SirmiumSirmium

Sirmium was one of the oldest cities in Europe. Archaeologists have found a trace of organized human life dating from the 5000 BC.

When the Romans conquered the city in the 1st century BC, Sirmium already was a settlement with a long tradition.

In the 1st century, Sirmium gained a status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, and became a very important military and strategic location in Pannonia province. The war expeditions of Roman emperors Traian, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II, were prepared in Sirmium.

In 103, Pannonia was split into two provinces: Upper Pannonia and Lower Pannonia, and Sirmius became the capital city of Lower Pannonia.

In 296, Diocletian operated a new territorial division of Pannonia. Instead of previous two provinces, there were four new provinces established in former territory of original province: Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda. Capital city of Pannonia Secunda was Sirmium.

In 293, with the establishment of tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium become one of the four capital cities of Roman Empire, the other three being Trier, Mmediolanum, and Nicomedia. During the tetrarchy, Sirmium was the capital of emperor Galerius. With the establishment of praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium. Sirmium was capital of this prefecture until 379, when the prefecture was divided politically into Eastern and Western Illyricum. The western part (including Sirmium) was included into prefecture of Italia. The eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture with the capital in Thessalonica.

The city also was an important Christian centre. Several Christian councils were held in Sirmium.

008. Julian II Sirmium

RIC VIII Sirmium 108 ASIRM???

ecoli

510. Valentinian IFlavius Valentinianus, known in English as Valentinian I, (321 - November 17, 375) was a Roman Emperor (364 - 375). He was born at Cibalis, in Pannonia, the son of a successful general, Gratian the Elder.

He had been an officer of the Praetorian guard under Julian and Jovian, and had risen high in the imperial service. Of robust frame and distinguished appearance, he possessed great courage and military capacity. After the death of Jovian, he was chosen emperor in his forty-third year by the officers of the army at Nicaea in Bithynia on February 26, 364, and shortly afterwards named his brother Valens colleague with him in the empire.

The two brothers, after passing through the chief cities of the neighbouring district, arranged the partition of the empire at Naissus (Nissa) in Upper Moesia. As Western Roman Emperor, Valentinian took Italia, Illyricum, Hispania, the Gauls, Britain and Africa, leaving to Eastern Roman Emperor Valens the eastern half of the Balkan peninsula, Greece, Aegyptus, Syria and Asia Minor as far as Persia. They were immediately confronted by the revolt of Procopius, a relative of the deceased Julian. Valens managed to defeat his army at Thyatria in Lydia in 366, and Procopius was executed shortly afterwards.

During the short reign of Valentinian there were wars in Africa, in Germany and in Britain, and Rome came into collision with barbarian peoples never of heard before, specifically the Burgundians, and the Saxons.

Valentinian's chief work was guarding the frontiers and establishing military positions. Milan was at first his headquarters for settling the affairs of northern Italy. The following year (365) Valentinian was at Paris, and then at Reims, to direct the operations of his generals against the Alamanni. These people, defeated at Scarpona (Charpeigne) and Catelauni (Châlons-en-Champagne) by Jovinus, were driven back to the German bank of the Rhine, and checked for a while by a chain of military posts and fortresses. At the close of 367, however, they suddenly crossed the Rhine, attacked Moguntiacum (Mainz) and plundered the city. Valentinian attacked them at Solicinium (Sulz am Neckar, in the Neckar valley, or Schwetzingen) with a large army, and defeated them with great slaughter. But his own losses were so considerable that Valentinian abandoned the idea of following up his success.

Later, in 374, Valentinian made peace with their king, Macrianus, who from that time remained a true friend of the Romans. The next three years he spent at Trier, which he chiefly made his headquarters, organizing the defence of the Rhine frontier, and personally superintending the construction of numerous forts.

During his reign the coasts of Gaul were harassed by the Saxon pirates, with whom the Picts and Scots of northern Britain joined hands, and ravaged the island from the Antonine Wall to the shores of Kent. In 368 Count Theodosius was sent to drive back the invaders; in this he was completely successful, and established a new British province, called Valentia in honour of the emperor.

In Africa, Firmus, raised the standard of revolt, being joined by the provincials, who had been rendered desperate by the cruelty and extortions of Comes Romanus, the military governor. The services of Theodosius were again requisitioned. He landed in Africa with a small band of veterans, and Firmus, to avoid being taken prisoner, committed suicide.

In 374 the Quadi, a Germanic tribe in what is now Moravia and Slovakia, resenting the erection of Roman forts to the north of the Danube in what they considered to be their own territory, and further exasperated by the treacherous murder of their king, Gabinius, crossed the river and laid waste the province of Pannonia. The emperor in April, 375 entered Illyricum with a powerful army. But during an audience to an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube (near Komárom, Hungary), Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in the skull while angrily yelling at the people gathered. This injury resulted in his death on November 17, 375.

His general administration seems to have been thoroughly honest and able, in some respects beneficent. If Valentinian was hard and exacting in the matter of taxes, he spent them in the defence and improvement of his dominions, not in idle show or luxury. Though himself a plain and almost illiterate soldier, Valentinian was a founder of schools. He also provided medical attendance for the poor of Rome, by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen districts of the city.

Valentinian was a Christian but permitted absolute religious freedom to all his subjects. Against all abuses, both civil and ecclesiastical, Valentinian steadily set his face, even against the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. His chief flaw was his temper, which at times was frightful, and showed itself in its full fierceness in the punishment of persons accused of witchcraft, fortune-telling or magical practices.

Valentinian I; RIC IX, Siscia 15(a); C.37; second period: 24 Aug. 367-17 Nov. 375; common. obv. DN VALENTINI-ANVS PF AVG, bust cuir., drap., r., rev. SECVRITAS-REI PVBLICAE, Victory advancing l., holding wreath and trophy. l. field R above R with adnex, r. field F, ex. gamma SISC rev.Z dot (type xxxv) ecoli

64-02 - MAXIMO (Cesar 235 - 238 D.C.)AE Sestercio 30 mm 17.4 gr.

Hijo de Maximino I y su Cesar y compañero de campañas durante todo su reinado.

Anv: "MAXIMVS CAES GERM" - Busto a cabeza desnuda, vistiendo Paludamentum (Capote militar), viendo a derecha, visto desde detrás.
Rev: "PIETAS AVG" – Implementos religiosos: Lituus (Atributo pontifical, báculo o cayado (vara con un extremo curvo) usado por los Augures (Adivinación “Augurium Praesagium”), Cuchilla de sacrificio y Patera (Plato, adoptado de los etruscos, usado en ceremonias religiosas para derramar vino sobre el altar) a la izquierda, de una Gran urna o Vasija de sacrificio, y Simpulum (cucharon usado por los sacerdotes durante los sacrificios) y sprinkler/Aspersoir ¿? a la derecha. "S C " en el exergo.

Acuñada: 4ta. Emisión Tarde en 236 a marzo/Abril 238 D.C.
Ceca: Roma – Italia
Rareza: C

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte II #11 Pag.156 - Sear RCTV Vol.III #8316 - BMCRE #204 - Cohen Vol.IV #7 Pag.525 - DVM # Pag. – Alram #36-5mdelvalle

64-02 - MAXIMO (Cesar 235 - 238 D.C.)AE Sestercio 30 mm 17.4 gr.

Hijo de Maximino I y su Cesar y compañero de campañas durante todo su reinado.

Anv: "MAXIMVS CAES GERM" - Busto a cabeza desnuda, vistiendo Paludamentum (Capote militar), viendo a derecha, visto desde detrás.
Rev: "PIETAS AVG" – Implementos religiosos: Lituus (Atributo pontifical, báculo o cayado (vara con un extremo curvo) usado por los Augures (Adivinación “Augurium Praesagium”), Cuchilla de sacrificio y Patera (Plato, adoptado de los etruscos, usado en ceremonias religiosas para derramar vino sobre el altar) a la izquierda, de una Gran urna o Vasija de sacrificio, y Simpulum (cucharon usado por los sacerdotes durante los sacrificios) y sprinkler/Aspersoir ¿? a la derecha. "S C " en el exergo.

Acuñada: 4ta. Emisión Tarde en 236 a marzo/Abril 238 D.C.
Ceca: Roma – Italia
Rareza: C

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte II #11 Pag.156 - Sear RCTV Vol.III #8316 Pag.80 - BMCRE #204 - Cohen Vol.IV #7 Pag.525 - DVM # Pag. – Alram #36-5 - MIR #12-3mdelvalle

704a, Caligula, 16 March 37 - 24 January 41 A.D.Caligula, 37 - 41 AD, Ionia, Smyrna. AE 17mm. Klose, Smyrna 27a. RPC 2473. 2.89 gm. Fine. Menophanes, Aviola, Procos, 37-38 AD. Obverse: AION, laureate head right; Reverse: Nike holding wreath right. Ex Tom Vossen.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

GAIUS (CALIGULA) (A.D. 37-41)

Garrett G. Fagan
Pennsylvania State University

Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula) was born on 31 August, A.D. 12, probably at the Julio-Claudian resort of Antium (modern Anzio), the third of six children born to Augustus's adopted grandson, Germanicus, and Augustus's granddaughter, Agrippina. Caligula was the Roman Emperor between A.D. 37-41). Unfortunately, his is the most poorly documented reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The literary sources for these four years are meager, frequently anecdotal, and universally hostile.[[1]] As a result, not only are many of the events of the reign unclear, but Gaius himself appears more as a caricature than a real person, a crazed megalomaniac given to capricious cruelty. Although some headway can be made in disentangling truth from embellishment, the true character of the youthful emperor will forever elude us.

As a baby he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north and was shown to the troops wearing a miniature soldier's outfit, including the hob-nailed sandal called caliga, whence the nickname by which posterity remembers him. His childhood was not a happy one, spent amid an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and murder. Instability within the Julio-Claudian house, generated by uncertainty over the succession, led to a series of personal tragedies.

When Tiberius died on 16 March A.D. 37, Gaius was in a perfect position to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus joint heirs. (Gemellus's life was shortened considerably by this bequest, since Gaius ordered him killed within a matter of months.) Backed by the Praetorian Prefect Q. Sutorius Macro, Gaius asserted his dominance. He had Tiberius's will declared null and void on grounds of insanity, accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate, and entered Rome on 28 March amid scenes of wild rejoicing. His first acts were generous in spirit: he paid Tiberius's bequests and gave a cash bonus to the Praetorian Guard, the first recorded donativum to troops in imperial history.

The ancient sources are practically unanimous as to the cause of Gaius's downfall: he was insane. The writers differ as to how this condition came about, but all agree that after his good start Gaius began to behave in an openly autocratic manner, even a crazed one. The sources describe his incestuous relations with his sisters, laughable military campaigns in the north, the building of a pontoon bridge across the Bay at Baiae, and the plan to make his horse a consul. Their unanimous hostility renders their testimony suspect, especially since Gaius's reported behavior fits remarkably well with that of the ancient tyrant, a literary type enshrined in Greco-Roman tradition centuries before his reign. Further, the only eye-witness account of Gaius's behavior, Philo's Embassy to Gaius, offers little evidence of outright insanity, despite the antagonism of the author, whom Gaius treated with the utmost disrespect.

The conspiracy that ended Gaius's life was hatched among the officers of the Praetorian Guard, apparently for purely personal reasons. It appears also to have had the support of some senators and an imperial freedman. As with conspiracies in general, there are suspicions that the plot was more broad-based than the sources intimate, and it may even have enjoyed the support of the next emperor Claudius, but these propositions are not provable on available evidence. On 24 January A.D. 41 the praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen caught Gaius alone in a secluded palace corridor and cut him down. He was 28 years old and had ruled three years and ten months.

Whatever damage Tiberius's later years had done to the carefully crafted political edifice created by Augustus, Gaius multiplied it a hundredfold. When he came to power in A.D. 37 Gaius had no administrative experience beyond his honorary quaestorship, and had spent an unhappy early life far from the public eye. He appears, once in power, to have realized the boundless scope of his authority and acted accordingly. For the elite, this situation proved intolerable and ensured the blackening of Caligula's name in the historical record they would dictate. The sensational and hostile nature of that record, however, should in no way trivialize Gaius's importance. His reign highlighted an inherent weakness in the Augustan Principate, now openly revealed for what it was -- a raw monarchy in which only the self-discipline of the incumbent acted as a restraint on his behavior. That the only means of retiring the wayward princes was murder marked another important revelation: Roman emperors could not relinquish their powers without simultaneously relinquishing their lives.

Copyright © 1997, Garrett G. Fagan.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Ancient Smyrna

The 5,000 year-old city of Izmir is one of the oldest cities of the Mediterranean basin. The original city was established in the third millennium BC (at present day BayraklÄ±), at which time it shared with Troy the most advanced culture in Anatolia.

Greek settlement is attested by the presence of pottery dating from about 1000 BC. In the first millennium BC Izmir, then known as Smyrna, ranked as one of the most important cities of the Ionian Federation. During this period, it is believed that the epic poet Homer resided here.

Lydian conquest of the city around 600 BC brought this golden age to an end. Smyrna was little more than a village throughout the Lydian and subsequent sixth century BC Persian rule. In the fourth century BC a new city was built on the slopes of Mt. Pagos (Kadifekale) during the reign of Alexander the Great. Smyrna's Roman period, beginning in the first century BC, was its second great era.

In the first century AD, Smyrna became one of the earliest centers of Christianity and it was one of the Seven Churches of Revelation. Both Revelation and the Martyrdom of Polycarp indicate the existence of a Jewish community in Smyrna as early as the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. The letter to the church at Smyrna in Revelation indicates that the Christians were spiritually "rich" and apparently in conflict with the Jews (2:9).

The origins of the Christian community there, which was established in the 1st century, are unknown. Ignatius of Antioch stopped at Smyrna on his way to martyrdom in Rome in 107 AD, and he sent a letter back to the Christians there from later in his journey. Smyrna's bishop, Polycarp, was burned at the stake in Smyrna's stadium around 156 AD.

Byzantine rule came in the fourth century and lasted until the Seljuk conquest in 11th century. In 1415, under Sultan Mehmed Çelebi, Smyrna became part of the Ottoman Empire.

The city earned its fame as one of the most important port cities of the world during the 17th to 19th centuries. The majority of its population were Greek but merchants of various origins (especially Greek, French, Italian, Dutch, Armenian, Sephardi and Jewish) transformed the city into a cosmopolitan portal of trade. During this period, the city was famous for its own brand of music (Smyrneika) as well as its wide range of products it exported to Europe (Smyrna/Sultana raisins, dried figs, carpets, etc.).

Today, Izmir is Turkey's third largest city and is nicknamed "the pearl of Aegean." It is widely regarded as the most Westernized city of Turkey in terms of values, ideology, gender roles, and lifestyle.
© 2005-08 Sacred Destinations. All rights reserved.
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/izmir-history.htm

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.Cleisthenes

710a, Vespasian, 1 July 69 - 24 June 79 A.D.Silver denarius, RIC II, 10, aVF, 3.5 g, 18mm, Rome mint, 69-71 AD; Obverse: IMP CAESA[R] VESPASIANV[S AV]G - Laureate head right; Reverse: COS ITER [T]R POT - Pax seated left holding branch and caduceus. Ex Imperial Coins.

De Imperatoribus Romanis:
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 69-79)

John Donahue
College of William and Mary

Introduction

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. A.D. 9, d. A.D. 79, emperor A.D. 69-79) restored peace and stability to an empire in disarray following the death of Nero in A.D. 68. In the process he established the Flavian dynasty as the legitimate successor to the Imperial throne. Although we lack many details about the events and chronology of his reign, Vespasian provided practical leadership and a return to stable government - accomplishments which, when combined with his other achievements, make his emperorship particularly notable within the history of the Principate.

Early Life and Career

Vespasian was born at Falacrina near Sabine Reate on 17 November, A.D. 9, the son of T. Flavius Sabinus, a successful tax collector and banker, and Vespasia Polla. Both parents were of equestrian status. Few details of his first fifteen years survive, yet it appears that his father and mother were often away from home on business for long periods. As a result, Vespasian's early education became the responsibility of his paternal grandmother, Tertulla. [[1]] In about A.D. 25 Vespasian assumed the toga virilis and later accepted the wearing of the latus clavus, and with it the senatorial path that his older brother, T. Flavius Sabinus, had already chosen. [[2]] Although many of the particulars are lacking, the posts typically occupied by one intent upon a senatorial career soon followed: a military tribunate in Thrace, perhaps for three or four years; a quaestorship in Crete-Cyrene; and the offices of aedile and praetor, successively, under the emperor Gaius. [[3]]

It was during this period that Vespasian married Flavia Domitilla. Daughter of a treasury clerk and former mistress of an African knight, Flavia lacked the social standing and family connections that the politically ambitious usually sought through marriage. In any case, the couple produced three children, a daughter, also named Flavia Domitilla, and two sons, the future emperors Titus and Domitian . Flavia did not live to witness her husband's emperorship and after her death Vespasian returned to his former mistress Caenis, who had been secretary to Antonia (daughter of Marc Antony and mother of Claudius). Caenis apparently exerted considerable influence over Vespasian, prompting Suetonius to assert that she remained his wife in all but name, even after he became emperor. [[4]]

Following the assassination of Gaius on 24 January, A.D. 41, Vespasian advanced rapidly, thanks in large part to the new princeps Claudius, whose favor the Flavians had wisely secured with that of Antonia, the mother of Germanicus, and of Claudius' freedmen, especially Narcissus. [[5]] The emperor soon dispatched Vespasian to Argentoratum (Strasbourg) as legatus legionis II Augustae, apparently to prepare the legion for the invasion of Britain. Vespasian first appeared at the battle of Medway in A.D. 43, and soon thereafter led his legion across the south of England, where he engaged the enemy thirty times in battle, subdued two tribes, and conquered the Isle of Wight. According to Suetonius, these operations were conducted partly under Claudius and partly under Vespasian's commander, Aulus Plautius. Vespasian's contributions, however, did not go unnoticed; he received the ornamenta triumphalia and two priesthoods from Claudius for his exploits in Britain. [[6]]

By the end of A.D. 51 Vespasian had reached the consulship, the pinnacle of a political career at Rome. For reasons that remain obscure he withdrew from political life at this point, only to return when chosen proconsul of Africa about A.D. 63-64. His subsequent administration of the province was marked by severity and parsimony, earning him a reputation for being scrupulous but unpopular. [[7]] Upon completion of his term, Vespasian returned to Rome where, as a senior senator, he became a man of influence in the emperor Nero's court. [[8]] Important enough to be included on Nero's tour of Greece in A.D. 66-67, Vespasian soon found himself in the vicinity of increasing political turbulence in the East. The situation would prove pivotal in advancing his career.

Judaea and the Accession to Power

In response to rioting in Caesarea and Jerusalem that had led to the slaughter in the latter city of Jewish leaders and Roman soldiers, Nero granted to Vespasian in A.D. 66 a special command in the East with the objective of settling the revolt in Judaea. By spring A.D. 67, with 60,000 legionaries, auxiliaries, and allies under his control, Vespasian set out to subdue Galilee and then to cut off Jerusalem. Success was quick and decisive. By October all of Galilee had been pacified and plans for the strategic encirclement of Jerusalem were soon formed. [[9]] Meanwhile, at the other end of the empire, the revolts of Gaius Iulius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, and Servius Sulpicius Galba , governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, had brought Nero's reign to the brink of collapse. The emperor committed suicide in June, A.D. 68, thereby ensuring chaos for the next eighteen months, as first Galba and then Marcus Salvius Otho and Aulus Vitellius acceded to power. Each lacked broad-based military and senatorial support; each would be violently deposed in turn. [[10]]

Still occupied with plans against Jerusalem, Vespasian swore allegiance to each emperor. Shortly after Vitellius assumed power in spring, A.D. 69, however, Vespasian met on the border of Judaea and Syria with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria, and after a series of private and public consultations, the two decided to revolt. [[11]] On July 1, at the urging of Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, the legions of Alexandria declared for Vespasian, as did the legions of Judaea two days later. By August all of Syria and the Danube legions had done likewise. Vespasian next dispatched Mucianus to Italy with 20,000 troops, while he set out from Syria to Alexandria in order to control grain shipments for the purpose of starving Italy into submission. [[12]] The siege of Jerusalem he placed in the hands of his son Titus.

Meanwhile, the Danubian legions, unwilling to wait for Mucianus' arrival, began their march against Vitellius ' forces. The latter army, suffering from a lack of discipline and training, and unaccustomed to the heat of Rome, was defeated at Cremona in late October. [[13]] By mid-December the Flavian forces had reached Carsulae, 95 kilometers north of Rome on the Flaminian Road, where the Vitellians, with no further hope of reinforcements, soon surrendered. At Rome, unable to persuade his followers to accept terms for his abdication, Vitellius was in peril. On the morning of December 20 the Flavian army entered Rome. By that afternoon, the emperor was dead. [[14]]

Tacitus records that by December 22, A.D. 69, Vespasian had been given all the honors and privileges usually granted to emperors. Even so, the issue remains unclear, owing largely to a surviving fragment of an enabling law, the lex de imperio Vespasiani, which conferred powers, privileges, and exemptions, most with Julio-Claudian precedents, on the new emperor. Whether the fragment represents a typical granting of imperial powers that has uniquely survived in Vespasian's case, or is an attempt to limit or expand such powers, remains difficult to know. In any case, the lex sanctioned all that Vespasian had done up to its passing and gave him authority to act as he saw fit on behalf of the Roman people. [[15]]

What does seem clear is that Vespasian felt the need to legitimize his new reign with vigor. He zealously publicized the number of divine omens that predicted his accession and at every opportunity he accumulated multiple consulships and imperial salutations. He also actively promoted the principle of dynastic succession, insisting that the emperorship would fall to his son. The initiative was fulfilled when Titus succeeded his father in A.D. 79.[[16]]

Emperorship

Upon his arrival in Rome in late summer, A.D. 70, Vespasian faced the daunting task of restoring a city and a government ravaged by the recent civil wars. Although many particulars are missing, a portrait nevertheles emerges of a ruler conscientiously committed to the methodical renewal of both city and empire. Concerning Rome itself, the emperor encouraged rebuilding on vacated lots, restored the Capitol (burned in A.D. 69), and also began work on several new buildings: a temple to the deified Claudius on the Caelian Hill, a project designed to identify Vespasian as a legitimate heir to the Julio-Claudians, while distancing himself from Nero ; a temple of Peace near the Forum; and the magnificent Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), located on the site of the lake of Nero 's Golden House. [[17]]

Claiming that he needed forty thousand million sesterces for these projects and for others aimed at putting the state on more secure footing, Vespasian is said to have revoked various imperial immunities, manipulated the supply of certain commodities to inflate their price, and increased provincial taxation. [[18]] The measures are consistent with his characterization in the sources as both obdurate and avaricious. There were occasional political problems as well: Helvidius Priscus, an advocate of senatorial independence and a critic of the Flavian regime from the start, was exiled after A.D. 75 and later executed; Marcellus Eprius and A. Alienus Caecina were condemned by Titus for conspiracy, the former committing suicide, the latter executed in A.D. 79.
As Suetonius claims, however, in financial matters Vespasian always put revenues to the best possible advantage, regardless of their source. Tacitus, too, offers a generally favorable assessment, citing Vespasian as the first man to improve after becoming emperor. [[19]] Thus do we find the princeps offering subventions to senators not possessing the property qualifications of their rank, restoring many cities throughout the empire, and granting state salaries for the first time to teachers of Latin and Greek rhetoric. To enhance Roman economic and social life even further, he encouraged theatrical productions by building a new stage for the Theatre of Marcellus, and he also put on lavish state dinners to assist the food trades. [[20]]

In other matters the emperor displayed similar concern. He restored the depleted ranks of the senatorial and equestrian orders with eligible Italian and provincial candidates and reduced the backlog of pending court cases at Rome. Vespasian also re-established discipline in the army, while punishing or dismissing large numbers of Vitellius ' men. [[21]]
Beyond Rome, the emperor increased the number of legions in the East and continued the process of imperial expansion by the annexation of northern England, the pacification of Wales, and by advances into Scotland and southwest Germany between the Rhine and the Danube. Vespasian also conferred rights on communities abroad, especially in Spain, where the granting of Latin rights to all native communities contributed to the rapid Romanization of that province during the Imperial period. [[22]]

Death and Assessment

In contrast to his immediate imperial predecessors, Vespasian died peacefully - at Aquae Cutiliae near his birthplace in Sabine country on 23 June, A.D. 79, after contracting a brief illness. The occasion is said to have inspired his deathbed quip: "Oh my, I must be turning into a god!" [[23]] In fact, public deification did follow his death, as did his internment in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside the Julio-Claudians.

A man of strict military discipline and simple tastes, Vespasian proved to be a conscientious and generally tolerant administrator. More importantly, following the upheavals of A.D. 68-69, his reign was welcome for its general tranquility and restoration of peace. In Vespasian Rome found a leader who made no great breaks with tradition, yet his ability ro rebuild the empire and especially his willingness to expand the composition of the governing class helped to establish a positive working model for the "good emperors" of the second century.

Bibliography

Since the scholarship on Vespasian is more comprehensive than can be treated here, the works listed below are main accounts or bear directly upon issues discussed in the entry above. A comprehensive modern anglophone study of this emperor is yet to be produced.

Atti congresso internazionale di studi Flaviani, 2 vols. Rieti, 1983.

Atti congresso internazionale di studi Vespasianei, 2 vols. Rieti, 1981.

Bosworth, A.B. "Vespasian and the Provinces: Some Problems of the Early 70s A.D." Athenaeum 51 (1973): 49-78.

Brunt, P. A. "Lex de imperio Vespasiani." JRS (67) 1977: 95-116.

D'Espèrey, S. Franchet. "Vespasien, Titus et la littérature." ANRW II.32.5: 3048-3086.

Dudley, D. and Webster, G. The Roman Conquest of Britain. London, 1965.

Gonzalez, J. "The Lex Irnitana: A New Copy of the Flavian Municipal Law." JRS 76 (1986): 147-243.

Grant, M. The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 476. New York, 1985.

Homo, L. Vespasien, l'Empereur du bons sens (69-79 ap. J.-C.). Paris, 1949.

Levi, M.A. "I Flavi." ANRW II.2: 177-207.

McCrum, M. and Woodhead, A. G. Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors Including the Year of the Revolution. Cambridge, 1966.

Nicols, John. Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae. Wiesbaden, 1978.

Scarre, C. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors. The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London, 1995.

Suddington, D. B. The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian, 49 B.C. - A.D. 79. Harare: U. of Zimbabwe, 1982.

Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford, 1958.

Wardel, David. "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol." Historia 45 (1996): 208-222.

Wellesley, K. The Long Year: A.D. 69. Bristol, 1989, 2nd ed.

Notes

[[1]] Suet. Vesp. 2.1. Suetonius remains the major source but see also Tac. Hist. 2-5; Cass. Dio 65; Joseph. BJ 3-4.

[[2]] Suetonius (Vesp. 2.1) claims that Vespasian did not accept the latus clavus, the broad striped toga worn by one aspiring to a senatorial career, immediately. The delay, however, was perhaps no more than three years. See J. Nicols, Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae (Wiesbaden, 1978), 2.

[[3]] Military tribunate and quaestorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3; aedileship: ibid., 5.3, in which Gaius, furious that Vespasian had not kept the streets clean, as was his duty, ordered some soldiers to load him with filth;,they complied by stuffing his toga with as much as it could hold. See also Dio 59.12.2-3; praetorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3, in which Vespasian is depicted as one of Gaius' leading adulators, an account consistent with Tacitus' portrayal (Hist 1.50.4; 2.5.1) of his early career. For a more complete discussion of these posts and attendant problems of dating, see Nicols, Vespasian, 2-7.

[[4]] Marriage and Caenis: Suet. Vesp. 3; Cass. Dio 65.14.

[[5]] Nicols, Vespasian, 12-39.

[[6]] Suet. Vesp. 4.1 For additional details on Vespasian's exploits in Britain, see D. Dudley and G. Webster, The Roman Conquest of Britain (London, 1965), 55 ff., 98.

[[7]] Concerning Vespasian's years between his consulship and proconsulship, see Suet. Vesp. 4.2 and Nicols, Vespasian, 9. On his unpopularity in Africa, see Suet. Vesp. 4.3, an account of a riot at Hadrumentum, where he was once pelted with turnips. In recording that Africa supported Vitellius in A.D. 69, Tacitus too suggests popular dissatisfaction with Vespasian's proconsulship. See Hist. 2.97.2.

[[8]] This despite the fact that the sources record two rebukes of Vespasian, one for extorting money from a young man seeking career advancement (Suet. Vesp. 4.3), the other for either leaving the room or dozing off during one of the emperor's recitals (Suet. Vesp. 4.4 and 14, which places the transgression in Greece; Tac. (Ann. 16.5.3), who makes Rome and the Quinquennial Games of A.D. 65 the setting; A. Braithwaite, C. Suetoni Tranquilli Divus Vespasianus, Oxford, 1927, 30, who argues for both Greece and Rome).

[[9]] Subjugation of Galilee: Joseph. BJ 3.65-4.106; siege of Jerusalem: ibid., 4.366-376, 414.

[[10]] Revolt of Vindex: Suet. Nero 40; Tac. Ann. 14.4; revolt of Galba: Suet. Galba 10; Plut. Galba, 4-5; suicide of Nero: Suet. Nero 49; Cass. Dio 63.29.2. For the most complete account of the period between Nero's death and the accession of Vespasian, see K. Wellesley, The Long Year: A.D. 69, 2nd. ed. (Bristol, 1989).

[[11]] Tac. Hist. 2.76.

[[12]] Troops in support of Vespasian: Suet. Vit. 15; Mucianus and his forces: Tac. Hist. 2.83; Vespasian and grain shipments: Joseph. BJ 4.605 ff.; see also Tac. Hist. 3.48, on Vespasian's possible plan to shut off grain shipments to Italy from Carthage as well.

[[13]] On Vitellius' army and its lack of discipline, see Tac. Hist. 2.93-94; illness of army: ibid., 2.99.1; Cremona: ibid., 3.32-33.

[[14]] On Vitellius' last days, see Tac. Hist. 3.68-81. On the complicated issue of Vitellius' death date, see L. Holzapfel, "Römische Kaiserdaten," Klio 13 (1913): 301.

[[15]] Honors, etc. Tac. Hist. 4.3. For more on the lex de imperio Vespasiani, see P. A. Brunt, "Lex de imperio Vespasiani," JRS (67) 1977: 95-116.

[[16]] Omens: Suet. Vesp. 5; consulships and honors: ibid., 8; succession of sons: ibid., 25.

[[17]] On Vespasian's restoration of Rome, see Suet. Vesp. 9; Cass. Dio 65.10; D. Wardel, "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol," Historia 45 (1996): 208-222.

[[18]] Suet. Vesp. 16.

[[19]] Ibid.; Tac. Hist. 1.50.

[[20]] Suet. Vesp. 17-19.

[[21]] Ibid., 8-10.

[[22]] On Vespasian's exploits in Britain, see esp. Tac., Agricola, eds. R. M. Ogilvie and I. A. Richmond (1967), and W. S. Hanson, Agricola and the Conquest of the North (1987); on the granting of Latin rights in Spain, see, e.g., J. Gonzalez, "The Lex Irnitana: a New Copy of the Flavian Municipal Law." JRS 76 (1986): 147-243.

[[23]] For this witticism and other anecdotes concerning Vespasian's sense of humor, see Suet. Vesp. 23.

Copyright (C) 1998, John Donahue. Published on De Imperatoribus Romanis, an Online Encyplopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families.
http://www.roman-emperors.org/vespasia.htm
Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

Cleisthenes

78-02 - VOLUSIANO (251 - 253 D.C.)AR Antoniniano 23 x 21 mm 5.2 gr.
Hijo de Treboniano Galo y Co-Augusto de éste.

Anv: "IMP C C VIB VOLVSIANVS AVG" - Busto radiado, vestido y acorazado viendo a derecha.
Rev: "VIRTVS AVGG" - Virtus (El Valor) con ropaje y casco militar, de pié a derecha, portando lanza invertida en la mano del brazo derecho extendido y descansando con la izquierda sobre un escudo al frente.

Acuñada 251 - 253 D.C.
Ceca: Mediolanum - Hoy Milan Italia

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte III #206 Pag.181 - Sear RCTV (1988) #2832 - Cohen Vol.V #133 Pag.279 - RSC Vol. IV #133 Pag.45 - DVM #45 Pag.237mdelvalle

78-02 - VOLUSIANO (251 - 253 D.C.)AR Antoniniano 23 x 21 mm 5.2 gr.
Hijo de Treboniano Galo y Co-Augusto de éste.

Anv: "IMP C C VIB VOLVSIANVS AVG" - Busto radiado, vestido y acorazado viendo a derecha.
Rev: "VIRTVS AVGG" - Virtus (El Valor) con ropaje y casco militar, de pié a derecha, portando lanza invertida en la mano del brazo derecho extendido y descansando con la izquierda sobre un escudo al frente.

Acuñada 251 - 253 D.C.
Ceca: Mediolanum - Hoy Milan Italia

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte III #206 Pag.181 - Sear RCTV '88 #2832 - Sear RCTV III #9776 Pag.245 - Cohen Vol.V #133 Pag.279 - RSC Vol. IV #133 Pag.45 - DVM #45 Pag.237- Hunter #47mdelvalle

94-06 - CLAUDIO GÃ“TICO (268 - 270 D.C.)AE Antoniniano 19 x 17 mm 4.1 gr.

Anv: "[IMP CLA]VDIVS P F AVG" - Busto radiado y vestido, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "FELIC TEMPO" - Felicitas (La Felicidad) de pié de frente viendo a izquierda, portando un Caduceo en mano derecha y un largo cetro vertical en izquierda. "T" en exergo.

Acuñada 1ra. Emisión Set. 268 - Inicios 269 D.C.
Ceca: Mediolanum (Off. 3ra.) - Milan Italia
Rareza: C

Referencias: RIC Vol.V Parte I #145 Pag.223 - Cohen Vol.VI #74 Pag.138 - DVM #9 var Pag.255 - Nor.#1012mdelvalle

94-17 - CLAUDIO GOTICO (268 - 270 D.C.)AE Antoniniano 19 x 17 mm 4.1 gr.

Anv: "[IMP CLA]VDIVS P F AVG" - Busto radiado y vestido, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "FELIC TEMPO" - Felicitas (La Felicidad) de pié de frente viendo a izquierda, portando un Caduceo en mano derecha y un largo cetro vertical en izquierda. "T" en exergo.

Acuñada 1ra. Emisión Set. 268 - Inicios 269 D.C.
Ceca: Mediolanum (Off. 3ra.) - Milan Italia

Referencias: RIC Va #145 (C) P.223, Sear RCTV III #11330 P.400, Cohen VI #74 P.138, DVM #9 var (Ley.) P.255, Nor.#1012, Hunter #52mdelvalle

94-20 - CLAUDIO GÃ“TICO (268 - 270 D.C.)AE Minimus? (Pequeño módulo) 15 x 16 mm 1.2 gr.

Anv: "DIV[O CLAVDIO]" - Cabeza radiada viendo a derecha.
Rev: "[CONSEC]RATIO" - Altar llameante decorado con cuatro cajones y un punto en cada cajon.

IMITACIÓN ITALIANA, Después de la revuelta de Mont Caelius (Una de las 7 colinas de Roma, hoy Celio) de Roma en 271 D.C., los monetarios de la ciudad perdieron su estatus de monetarios oficiales, sin embargo continuaron acuñando moneda, indudablemente en Italia del norte, así pasaron a ser simples falsificadores.

Acuñada después de 271 D.C.
Ceca: No oficial

Referencias: RIC Vol.V Parte I #259 Pag.233 - Sear RCTV (1988) #3228 - Cohen Vol.VI #50 Pag.135 - DVM #44/1 Pag.256 - Nor.#1829 - Göbl#99 mOa 1 commentsmdelvalle

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