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501. Constantine I Ostia SolOstia
Although Ostia was probably founded for the sole purpose of military defence — since through the Tiber's mouths armies could eventually reach Rome by water — in time the port became a commercial harbour, and a very important one too. Many of the goods that Rome received from its colonies and provinces passed through Ostia. In this role, Ostia soon replaced Pozzuoli (Puteoli, near Naples).
In 87 BC, the town was razed by Marius, and again in 67 BC it was sacked by pirates. After this second attack, the town was re-built and provided with protective walls by Cicero. The town was then further developed during the 1st century AD, mainly under the influence of Tiberius, who ordered the building of the first Forum. The town was also soon enriched by the construction of a new harbour on the northern mouths of the Tiber (which reaches the sea with a larger mouth in Ostia, Fiumara Grande, and a narrower one near to the current Fiumicino international airport). The new harbour, not surprisingly called Portus, was excavated from the ground at the orders of the emperor Claudius; it has an hexagonal form, in order to reduce the waves strength. The town was provided with all the services a town of the time could require; in particular, a famous lighthouse. Archaeologists also discovered the public latrinas, organised for collective use as a series of seats that lets us imagine today that the function was also a social moment. In addition, Ostia had a large theatre, public baths and a fire fighting service. You can still see the mosaic floors of the baths near today's entrance to the town.
Trajan too, required a widening of the naval areas, and ordered the building of another harbour, again pointing towards the north. It must be remembered that at a relatively short distance, there was also the harbour of Civitavecchia (Centum Cellae), and Rome was starting to have a significant number of harbours, the most important remaining Portus.
Ostia grew to 50,000 inhabitants in the 2nd century AD and in time focused its naval activities on Portus. With the end of the Roman Empire, Ostia fell slowly into decay, and was finally abandoned in the 9th century due to the fall of the Roman empire in combination with repeated invasions and sackings by Arab pirates; the inhabitants moved to Gregoriopolis. In the Middle Ages, bricks from buildings in Ostia were used for several other occasions. The Leaning Tower of Pisa was entirely built of material originally belonging to Ostia. A "local sacking" was carried out by baroque architects, who used the remains as a sort of marble store for the palazzi they were building in Rome. Soon after, foreign explorers came in search of ancient statues and objects. The Papacy started organising its own investigations with Pope Pius VII and the research still continues today. It has been estimated that two thirds of the ancient town have currently been found.
001. Constantine I Ostia
RIC VI Ostia 85 S
ecoli
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661. Julia Domna denariusRome Mint, 210 Ad
20 mm, VF
IVLIA AVGVSTA, draped bust right, floormat on head
VENVS VICTRIX, half naked Venus, holding helmet and palm, leaning on column, shield at feetEcgþeow
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abilaspijk024Elagabalus
Abila
Obv: Laureate draped and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind.
Rev: In exergue, CεABIΛ. Left downward, IεACV. Right upward, NWNKC. Above, BΠ C. Hexastyle temple with central arch and pediment on top of which figure is standing; flaming altar within temple; on either side square towers with doors below and three windows on upper floors; steps in front.
24 mm, 10.70 gms
Spijkerman 24Charles M
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ALFOLDI 041.018OBVERSE: IMP C PROBVS P F AVG
REVERSE: PAX AVG
BUST TYPE: B = Radiate, cuirassed bust right
FIELD / EXERGUE MARKS: -/S//XXI
WEIGHT 3.53g / AXIS: 11h / DIAMETER: 21-23mm
MINT: Siscia
RIC 706
ALFOLDI 041.018
COLLECTION NO. 1365
Provenance: Emporium Hamburg Floor Auction 81-83 lot 440 (group lot)Barnaba6
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An Introduction to Roman Painted Fresco DecorationFresco decoration consists of paint that was placed on still-wet plaster.
It was usually placed on walls, but occasionally on the ceiling or even, more rarely the floor.
This sample is one of three similar ones, shown together in another photo in this gallery,
it consists mostly of red (which was the most common wall panel colour) with a grey-brown
design that may be some sort of vertical border.
According to Behling, pure red accounted for 31-51% of fresco fragments found at Carnuntum. Dark red, red/brown, rose, violet/red accounted for another 25-30%. Red was the most frequent color in multi-color fragments. By contrast blue, yellow and green were much rare at roughly 1% each.
9 x 9 cm.
References:
Carnuntum Jahrbuch 2008, Zivilstadt Carnuntum - Fundbericht Haus II, part VI Wandmalerei (by Claudia-Maria Behling).
- fresco colours were described using the Munsell Soil Color Charts, New Windsor, 2000.
SC
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ARCH, Caracalla & Julia Domna, Moesia inferior, Markianopolis, 19. HrJ (2013) 6.19.46.27Caracalla & Julia Domna, AD 198-217
AE26, 11.43g, 26.27mm, 45°
struck under governor Quintilianus
obv. [ANTWNINOC] AVGOVCTOC IOVLIA - DOMNA
confronted busts of the Imperial pair
rev. VP KVNTILIANOV MARKIANOPOLITWN
Triumphal arch, with two floors, three doors, two windows; above four figures, from
l. to r.: Caracalla with sceptre(?), Severus, Julia Domna, and - a bit smaller - Geta
on r. side E (for Pentassarion)
ref. a) AMNG I/1, 695 (1 ex., Mandl)
b) Varbanov (engl.) 1041
c) Hristova/Jekov (2013) No.6.19.46.27
d) BMC 20
rare, about VF/superb EF
This type seems to depict a triumphal arch erected in Marcianopolis. For the 4 figures on top will be no other interpretation possible than that suggested by A.v.Sallet (Cat. Berlin 58, 11) of the Imperial family...So we have in te middle Severus and Domna, on the l. side Caracalla and on the r. side a bit smaller Geta. The triumphal arch seems to be erected under Severus but appears not until Caracalla's sole reign, probably at the beginning because Geta is depicted too (Pick).
Jochen
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Britain, Bath, Aquae Sulis, East BathsThe east baths have had false walls erected to show floor level and to try and differentiate between usage areas.maridvnvm
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Cilician Armenia. Hetoum II (1289-1293)Nercessian 401, Bedoukian 1642
AE 20 mm kardez. Sis (now Kozan, Turkey) mint.
Obv: King seated in oriental fashion on an invisible pillow or on floor. King's vestment is folded between two knees. Left hand raised holding cross and right hand holding mace which extends over his right shoulder, +[ՀԵԹ]ՈՒՄ ԹԱ[ԳԱ]Ւ [Hetoum, Takavor Hayots = Hetoum, King of the Armenians].
Rev. Cross potent, +[Շ]ԻՆԵԱԼ Ի ՍԻՍ [Shineal I Kaghakn I Sis = Struck in the City of Sis].Stkp
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Conder Token: Thomas Spence, Middlesex 760Obv: ENGLISH SLAVERY, a fat man seated at a table eating, JACOBS below.
Rev: FRENCH LIBERTY, a skinny man seated on the floor gnawing on a bone.
Note: The design of this token was copied from an anti-revolution cartoon by James Gillray, published on 21 December 1792.
Edge: Plain
Thomas Spence, Halfpenny Conder token
Dalton & Hamer: Middlesex 760Matt Inglima
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Croatia, Pula - Floor MosaicAll that remains is a floor mosaic depicting the Punishment of Dirce.Legatus
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Croatia, Split - Diocletian's palace, basementRomans who escaped from near Salona in 7th century reocupied Diocletian's palace. They lived in higher floors above basement. These rooms was gradually filled by garbage through holes in ceiling so basment remained preserved until these days. J. B.
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Croatia, Split - Diocletian's palace, basementRomans who escaped from near Salona in 7th century reocupied Diocletian's palace. They lived in higher floors above basement. These rooms was gradually filled by garbage through holes in ceiling so basment remained preserved until these days. J. B.
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Demetrios I SoterThis is the first Seleucid coin I purchaced, and the only coin i have lost! As a archaeologist, i have a special relation to objects of our human history, and i regularily have my coins in my pocket when i travel, go to work, when i teach. They are a part of my view on history, and as such, i want my surroundings to FEEL, touch and look at the coins firsthand.
But this one ... I dropped it on the granite floor tiles of my home, being nonchelant! It broke into many pieces, and i learned first hand that 2200 years old middle eastern silver is unpure, FRAGILE!
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England, London, British Museum, Nereid Monument from Xanthos LyciaLondon, British Museum, Partial reconstruction of the Nereid Monument at Xanthos in Lycia, ca. 390–380 BC. Main floor, room 16: Nereid Monument.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XanthosJoe Sermarini
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Faustina Junior, Augusta 146 - Winter 175/176 A.D., Wife of emperor Marcus AureliusSilver Denarius, BMCRE II p. 404, 148; RSC II 195; SRCV II 5262; RIC III MA689 var. (no stephane); Hunter II 8 var. (same), Choice Very Fine , excellent centering, unusual artistic portrait for empress Faustina,toned, Rome mint, weight 2.655g, maximum diameter 17.8mm, die axis 0o, struck under Marcus Aurelius, 161 - 175 A.D.; obverse FAVSTINA AVGVSTA, draped bust right, wearing stephane and earring, bun in the back; reverse SALVS, Salus seated left, feeding snake rising up from altar, from patera in right hand, resting left elbow on throne, feet on footstool.
Rare with this grade.
Salus was the Roman goddess of health. She was Hygieia to the Greeks, who believed her to be the daughter of Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, and Epione, the goddess of soothing of pain. Her father Asclepius learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. Woman seeking fertility, the sick, and the injured slept in his temples in chambers where non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor and provide healing.
*The logo of Pharmacology was taken from Salus 's Patera and snake .
From The Sam Mansourati Collection. / Item number RI 75220 (F)/ 20469 (S).
Given as a souvenir to a dear friend and a great Pharmacist on 9/8/2017.
Sam
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Germany, Berlin, The propylon of the Sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros from the Pergamon Acropolis, Pergamon Museum BerlinThe monumental gateway, which stood at the northeast corner of the sanctuary, was built by Eumenes II in the early 2nd century BC. The two-storey building, had a porch of four Doric columns (tetrastyle) on the ground floor, above which was a dedicatory inscription by Eumenes to Athena Nikephoros. The upper storey was a balcony with four Ionic columns and fronted by a military frieze depicting armour and weapons. The Sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros, on the southwest corner of the walled citadel on the Acropolis, was one of Pergamon's oldest religious centres, used for the worship of Athena and Nike. The cult of Athena at Pergamon had associations with the city's mythical founder Telephos, the son of Herakles and Auge, who was a priestess of Athena. The Attalid rulers of Pergamon claimed to be descendants of Telephos, and thus of Herakles and Auge.Joe Sermarini
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Greece, Delos - Mosaic Floor in the Maritime QuarterInterestingly this mosaic floor features the symbol of Tanit a Carthaginian goddess.
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Israel, Sepphoris - 'Mona Lisa' MosaicPart of a Roman mosaic, usually dated to the early 3rd-century CE, from the dining room floor of a mansion in the upper town at Sepphoris. When it was first excavated, the Israeli press named it 'the Mona Lisa of the Galilee'. Over-hype, maybe, but it is certainly attractive.Abu Galyon
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Italy, Aquileia - basilicaBasilica is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the Saints Hermagora and Fortunatus and was built in the first half of the 11th century by Patriarch Poppo in Romanesque style. Upper parts and roof were built by Markward von Randeck in 14th-15th century in Gothic style.
Mosaics from 4th century were hidden under the floor until 1909.J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorJonas swallowed by sea monster
Post-Theodorian South hall (end of 4th century)
Mosaics were originally part of Theodorian complex destroyed by Attila. Basilica was built on its site in 1031 and mosaics remained untouched under the floor.J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorPost-Theodorian South hall (end of 4th century)
Mosaics were originally part of Theodorian complex destroyed by Attila. Basilica was built on its site in 1031 and mosaics remained untouched under the floor.J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorscene of the Good Shepherd with the Mystic Flock
Christ is portrayed as a beardless young man bearing the lost lamb upon his shoulders. In one hand he holds the syrinx, symbol of the gentless he takes cere of his flock with.
Post-Theodorian South hall (end of 4th century)
Mosaics were originally part of Theodorian complex destroyed by Attila. Basilica was built on its site in 1031 and mosaics remained untouched under the floor.J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorFishing scene describes the preaching of the Apostles ("Follow me and I will make you fishers of men":Matthew 4,19). The fishes represent the people listening to the good news, the boat is symbol of the church, the net represents the kingdom of heaven ("The kingdom of heaven is like big net that was cast into the sea...": Matthew 13,47).
Post-Theodorian South hall (end of 4th century)
Mosaics were originally part of Theodorian complex destroyed by Attila. Basilica was built on its site in 1031 and mosaics remained untouched under the floor.J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorRam and battle between Cock and Tortoise. The Cock is symbol of the light of a new day, thus representing Christ, the "light of the world". The tortoise, whose Greek name means "dweller of the darkness", is instead of the symbol of Evil.
Post-Theodorian North hall (middle of the 4th century)J. B.
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Italy, Aquileia - mosaic floorPost-Theodorian North hall (middle of the 4th century)J. B.
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Italy, Herculaneum, Central ThermaeThe tepidarium has a vaulted ceiling. The floor has partly collapsed, showing sections of the hypocaust beneath, bus is decorated with a fine mosaic depicting a triton surrounded by dolphins
From my visit to Herculaneum in August 2015 maridvnvm
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Italy, Ostia - mosaique floorJ. B.
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Italy, Pompeii - Floor mozaicDetail of one of the many floor mozaics around Pompeii.
From my visit to Pompeii in August 2015maridvnvm
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Italy, Rome, Pantheon insideInterior view of Hadrian's dome and ocular center. An engeneering masterpiece, the concrete gets thinner as it rises. The open ocular in the center allows light to flood into this massive ancient space. The walls at the bottom are about 12 feet thick. The interior is completely ancient from the marble floors to the walls and dome. Origianlly dedicated to all the god's it is now a Catholic church.Jay GT4
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Italy, Rome, The Painted Garden of LiviaThe painted garden of Livia Augusta was located at her country residence in Prima Porta, 15km north along the Via Flaminia. It was decorating the walls of a windowless underground room which was probably used as a summer room.
The painted garden runs along the four walls depicting plants and trees in different periods of time with overlapping flowering and mature fruits. Plant species depicted include: umbrella pine, oak, red fir, quince, pomegranate, myrtle, oleander, date palm, strawberry, laurel, viburnum, holm oak, boxwood, cypress, ivy, acanthus, rose, poppy, chrysanthemum, chamomile, fern, violet, and iris. Birds are present almost everywhere.
In 1950 the frescoes were detached from the villa and transferred to the Museo Nazionale Romano di Palazzo Massimo, close to Stazione Termini, and located at the third floor.
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Italy- Forum Romanum- Basilica Emilia- Frisco with everyday lifeThe Basilica Julia was built in 54-48 BCE by Julius Caesar as a part of his reorganisation of the Forum Romanum, where it replaced the Basilica Sempronia. It is located on the S. side of the main square of the Forum Romanum, between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor and Pollux.
Julius Caesar started construction in 54 BCE, but it was still unfinished at his death. It was built on the site of the Basilica Sempronia and a series of shops, the tabernae veteres, that were all demolished.
Augustus finished the building after Caesar's death, but had to reconstruct it again shortly after, due to its destruction by fire in 9 BCE. It was dedicated again in 2 BCE, this time in the name of Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, Augustus' designated heirs at the time.
The basilica was later damaged much by the fire in 283 CE, and restored a few years after by Diocletian. It was again destroyed when Alaric sacked the city in 410 CE.
The Basilica Julia was of huge proportions. The basilica rested on a low podium, seven steps high on the E. side and just one on the W. side, due to the sloping terrain. Of outer dimensions 101×49m, the central nave of the basilica was 82×18m. The four lateral aisles, two on each side, were two storeys high, with vaulted ceiling and arches decorated by semi-columns. The central nave was three storeys high.
A series of shops stood behind the basilica towards the Velabrum. A Temple of Augustus was also built in the area behind the basilica by Tiberius.
The function of the Basilica Julia was to house tribunals and other activities from the Forum when weather didn't permit outdoor meetings. The central nave probably divided in four by wooden removable structures to allow the hearing of more cases at a time. The basilica also housed some administrative offices of the city.
Game boards and graffiti are incised in the steps and in the pavement of the side aisles by idling visitors to the Forum. Some of this can still be seen on the side of the main square of the forum.
The building was in ruin already in late Antiquity, and subsequently stripped of all reusable material, i.e., almost everything.
Very little of the building remains now. The basic floor plan can be seen, and some parts of brick walls remain towards the Temple of Saturn, some bases of statues still in their original position, and the four step podium remain. The brick column bases are reconstructions of the 19th century.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Forum Romanum- The basilica of Majencius front and backThe Basilica of Maxentius (Basilica Maxentii) or the Basilica of Constantine (Basilica Constantini) was the last of the great civilian basilicas on the Roman Forum. The ruins of the basilica is located between the Temple of Amor and Roma and the Temple of Romulus, on the Via Sacra.
The construction of the basilica was initiated by Maxentius in 308 CE, and finished by Constantine after he had defeated Maxentius in the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE. As other similar buildings, it was destined for commercial and administrative activities. It is likely that the basilica housed the offices of the Prefect of the City, the highest imperial official in late antiquity.
The site chosen for the basilica was on the Velia, a low ridge connecting the Esquiline Hill and the Palatine Hill. Large parts of the Velia was levelled in preparation for the construction of the basilica. Literary sources tell that earlier the site was occupied by the Horrea Piperatica, the central market and storage facility for pepper and spices, built in the time of Domitian. Also on the site was a sanctuary of the penates publici which had to be moved.
The Basilica of Maxentius is built with arches, which is very atypical. All the other public basilicas had flat ceilings supported by wooden beams. The construction techniques used borrowed more from the great imperial baths than from the traditional basilica.
The basilica is one of the most impressive buildings on the Forum Romanum. The ground plan is rectangular, oriented E.-W., covering an area of 100×65m divided into a central nave and to lateral aisles and an atrium on the E. side where the original entrance was.
The central nave measured 80×25m and was covered by three groin vaults with a maximum height of 35m, supported by eight monolithic Corinthian columns of 14.5m. Each of the two aisles was made up of three interconnected coffered vaults, 20.5m wide and 24m high, communicating with the central nave by three huge openings.
Light was provided by two rows of three large windows in five of the six lateral vaults, and by windows in the sides of the now collapsed cross vaults over the central nave. The windows in two of the vaults in the surviving N. side of the building give a good idea of the amount of light inside the building.
The floor in both the central and the lateral spaces were a geometric pattern of squares with circles and lozenges of multi-coloured marble, similar to the floor in the Pantheon.
The walls were in opus latericium, originally with a marble veneer. The vaults were in opus caementicium with a gilded stucco finish. The roof was covered with gilded bronze tiles.
The entrance of the original project of Maxentius was to the east, from a branch of the old Via Sacra behind the Temple of Amor and Roma. It lead into an elongated atrium, connected to the central nave and the lateral aisles by five gateways.
In the W. end was a huge apse, 20m in diameter, where a colossal seated statue of Maxentius stood. This statue was later changed to look like Constantine. The statue was an acrolith (the head, hands and feet were of marble, while the rest was of other materials), and the remains of the statue were found in 1486 in the apse.
Constantine changed the plan when he took over the unfinished basilica. He had a another entrance added on the S. side, on the Via Sacra, where a monumental stairway led to a porch of four porphyry columns and via three double doorways into the central part of the S. aisle. In front of this new entrance, in the central vault of the N. aisle, another apse was added, smaller than the apse in the W. end. In back of this apse a niche held a standing statue of Constantine, and smaller, square-headed niches, two rows of four niches on each side, which might have housed a gallery of Constantine's relatives and lieutenants. This room could be closed by wooden doors, and it is likely the central part of the office of the Prefect of the City was there.
Of the original building only the three vaults of the N. aisle remain, devoid of all decorations. The vaults of the S. and central nave probably collapsed under an earthquake in c. 847. The floor plan is clearly visible, however, and the remaining structures give a vivid impression of the grandeur of the original edifice.
The remains of the Colossal Statue of Constantine I are in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Campidoglio, and one of the columns from the central nave was moved to the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in 1614. The remaining columns have disappeared. The bronze tiles from the roof were reused for the first Basilica of Saint Peter.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Forum Romanum- The Forum of TrajanThe Forum of Trajan has a more complicated foundation than the other Imperial Forums. The piazza is closed, with the Basilica Ulpia. At the back of this the Trajan column was elevated between the two Libraries, and it was believed that the complex concluded with the Temple dedicated to Divo Trajan. One entered the piazza through a curved arch passageway, a type of arch of triumph, in the center of a convex wall decorated with jutting columns.
An equestrian statue of Trajan occupied the center of the piazza, which was bordered by porticos with decorated attics-similar to the Forum of Augustus but with Caryatids instead of Daci. Spacious covered exedras opened up behind the porticos. The facade of the basilica, that closed the piazza, also had an attic decorated with Daci statues. The inside of the Basilica had 5 naves with columns along the short sides and apses at both ends; the very spacious central nave had two floors.
The Trajan Column was closed in a small courtyard, bordered by porticos opposite of the Library's facade. These were constituted of large rooms with niches in the walls and decorated with two types of columns.
The temple was probably of an enormous dimension and probably closed by a fenced portico. Today's archeological excavations in the Forum of Trajan have demonstrated that the Temple of Trajan's position is not what it was hypothesized to be in the past. Archeological evidence has clarified the findings in the area to be Insulae- remains of houses rather than those from a temple structure. These findings lie underneath what is today the Province headquarters- the palazzo of Valentini, next to the Column's location.
Rather, the temple was probably situated exactly in the middle of the forum area, where excavation is now taking place.
The Forum of Trajan was utilized as a splendid area of representation for public ceremonies. We know, for example, that in 118 A.D. Adriano publicly burned tables with citizen's debts in the piazza, as a statement to the treasury.
Also, in the late epoch, exedras behind the lateral porticos were used to host poetry readings and conferences.
Court hearings and ceremonies for the freedom of slaves were probably held in the apses of the Basilica.
The Library was probably used as a sort of historical archive of the Roman state and also conserved republican annals.
The sculptural decorations in the various Forum spaces transmitted messages of imperial propaganda of Trajan.
Above all was the celebration of the Daci conquest and the victorious army with focus on the achievement of peace. The representation was sculpted into the walls with images of the conquests.
Images of cupids watering griffins on the entrance wall allude again to the peacefulness of the Empire's power.
The expansion and growth of the Empire, completed with the campaign towards the Orient and interrupted by the death of the Emperor, would have allowed Trajan to consider himself the new founder of Rome.
His representation as a hero is justified in his sepulcher in the base of the Column, in the heart of the city.
Forum of Trajan
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107 A.D. - Dacia (Romania) conquered and work begins;
January 15th 112 A.D. – Inauguration of the Forum and the Basilica Ulpia;
May 18th 113 A.D. – Inauguration of the Trajan Column;
117 A.D. – Trajan dies and the arch of triumph is ordered by the Senate;
125-138 A.D. – Probable dedication to the temple on behalf of Adrian.
Complex Area: 300x180 meters
uncovered piazza area: 120x90 meters
Area of the Basilica Ulpia: 180x60 meters
Height of Trajan's Column: 39.81 meters
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- Bakery with its grain millBAKERY Strada Stabiana Pompeii
These are some mill-wheels which ground the flour in the bakery or pistrinum. The top part rotates around the bottom stationary stone.
HOUSE OF THE BAKER (VI,3,3)
This dates from the 2nd cent. BC, but the remodelling after the 62 AD earthquake converted the ground floor of the house into workrooms, while the residential function moved to the top floor, reached by the stairs to the right of the atrium entrance: it appears that work was not yet complete at the time of the eruption (79 AD). For a long time this was the only large bakery brought to light in Pompeii, among the 35 now known. The hortus (garden) contained the machinery for grinding wheat and for preparing and baking bread: the water basins, the vaulted oven, four millstones of lava rock on a base in opus incertum. In the open room on the right, two stone blocks supported the table on which the bread rested before baking, while the room to the left of the tablinum was the kitchen. The feed bin was against the wall of the stalls, which open onto the garden and Vico di Modesto: here it seems that a fully harnessed mule skeleton was found.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- Big House and house with drain in the cornerWhat strikes you most about Pompeii - and also Herculaneum for that matter - is that they are both very neatly laid-out cities, very elegant and very orderly. There was running water in the houses, as the numerous indoor fountains would testify. There were public baths - Roman style - with separate entrances for men and women; while the walls of both were decorated with terracotta statues, the women's baths were much more elegant with exquisite floral mosaics. There were separate dressing rooms called apodyterium, cold bath - frigidairium - warm bath - tepidarium - and hot bath - calidarium. The calidarium was heated by a system of double walls and a hollow floor, which provided circulation for hot air and steam. The large cold water basin has inscriptions with names of the donors who funded its construction. There was also the palaestra or the gymnasium and separate areas for ablutions. There were public latrines with running water channels. In fact, the baths take up quite a bit of space in Pompeii and Herculaneum, pointing to the fastidiousness of early Romans when it came to personal hygiene. In Herculaneum, there is even a bronze bath-tub that is still intact.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- BrothelSome of the most fascinating clues about the lives of the ancient peoples who made their lives in Pompeii can be found in the numerous brothels in the city. It is an indication of the prosperity of the city -- people had money to burn. Here is one example of the Pompeian "houses of ill repute". I chose this one because of its unusual architecture and fine frescoes.
Ancient Pompeii was full of erotic or pornographic frescoes, symbols, inscriptions, and even household items. The ancient Roman culture of the time was much more sexually permissive than most present-day cultures.
When the serious excavation of Pompeii began in the 18th century, a clash of the cultures was the result. A fresco on a wall that showed the ancient god of sex and fertility, Priapus with his extremely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster and only rediscovered because of rainfall in 1998.[1] In 1819, when king Francis I of Naples visited the exhibition at the National Museum with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a secret cabinet, accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals." Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, it was made briefly accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and has finally been re-opened in the year 2000. Minors are not allowed entry to the once secret cabinet without a guardian or a written permission.As previously mentioned, some of the paintings and frescoes became immediately famous because they represented erotic, sometimes explicit, sexual scenes. One of the most curious buildings recovered was in fact a Lupanare (brothel), which had many erotic paintings and graffiti indicating the services available -- patrons only had to point to what they wanted. The Lupanare had 10 rooms (cubicula, 5 per floor), a balcony, and a latrina. It was one of the larger houses, perhaps the largest, but not the only brothel. The town seems to have been oriented to a warm consideration of sensual matters: on a wall of the Basilica (sort of a civil tribunal, thus frequented by many Roman tourists and travelers), an immortal inscription tells the foreigner, If anyone is looking for some tender love in this town, keep in mind that here all the girls are very friendly (loose translation).
The function of these pictures is not yet clear: some authors say that they indicate that the services of prostitutes were available on the upper floor of the house and could perhaps be a sort of advertising, while others prefer the hypothesis that their only purpose was to decorate the walls with joyful scenes (as these were in Roman culture). The Termae were, however, used in common by males and females, although baths in other areas (even within Pompeii) were often segregated by sex.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- Entrance to the house of FaunoHOUSE OF THE FAUN (VI,12,2)
With its 3000m² it is the largest house in Pompeii: built over a previous dwelling at the beginning of the 2nd century BC, its current form is the result of subsequent alterations. The entrance on the left leads directly into the public section, the door on the right to the private rooms: an atrium whose roof is supported by four columns, stalls, latrine, baths, kitchen. In the entrance is the Latin message HAVE. The ‘first style’ decoration, the floors of sectile opus, and the mosaic threshold (now at the Naples Museum) highlight the dignity of this house, more similar to the aristocratic Roman domus than local upper class dwellings. In the center of the impluvium is a bronze statue of the ‘faun’ (2nd cent. BC: original in Naples); around it are rooms that held mosaic paintings on the floor and ‘first style’ decorations on the walls. Between the two porticoed gardens is the exedra, the core of the dwelling, with Corinthian columns, stuccoed and painted capitals, a splendid mosaic (now at the N
aples Museum) depicting the victory of Alexander the Great over Darius, King of Persia, which has helped to suggest a connection between the Macedonian ruler and the unknown, educated, and wealthy owner of the
FLOOR PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN Pompeii 2nd Century Courtesy of Professor Barbette Spaeth, Tulane University (Excerpted from Professor Spaeth's accompanying text) This house was among the largest and most elegant of the houses of Pompeii. It took up an entire city block (c. 80 m. long by 35 m. wide or 315 by 115 ft.) and was filled with beautiful works of art, including the famous mosaic depicting Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus, and wall paintings of the First, Second and Fourth Styles. The decoration of the house is heavily influenced by Hellenistic models. The House of the Faun was originally built in the early second century. In this period, the house was focused around two atria, one a large Tuscan atrium (3), and the other a smaller tetrastyle atrium (10), while the back of the house had a large kitchen garden. The two-atria plan represented an attempt to separate the formal functions of the atrium, i.e., the reception of clients and conduct of business by the patron of the house, from its private functions, i.e., the course of everyday family life. This type of plan is an intermediate step between the simple atrium house, with a single atrium complex, and the atrium and peristyle house. Apparently, the two-atria plan did not prove ultimately satisfactory for the owners of the House of the Faun. In the late second century B.C. they added a peristyle (8) to the north of the original two-atria nucleus, along with a service quarter to the eastern side (12-16), and reception rooms to the north. The rear of the house contained the kitchen garden. To this later period of the house belong its wall decorations in First Style and its famous mosaics. Finally, another peristyle was added around the time of the Early Roman Colony (20), that is, in the early first century B.C. This peristyle included more reception rooms along the south side (17 & 18), and smaller rooms, perhaps for servants, to the north (22) . The center of the new peristyle was occupied by the kitchen garden (19). With these renovations, the house acquired a new focus around the peristyles. The peristyles represented a private retreat for the family, a place where they could relax and entertain special guests. The front part of the house was kept for more formal occasions. The addition of service quarters reflects a further differentiation of function in the house, again separating the daily life of the family from the more public reception areas. The House of the Faun, with its elaborate decoration and extensive plan, represents one of the most important examples of Roman domus architecture of the second to first century B.C.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- Entrance to the house of Fauno 1House of the Faun. Fauces
FLOOR PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN Pompeii 2nd Century Courtesy of Professor Barbette Spaeth, Tulane University (Excerpted from Professor Spaeth's accompanying text) This house was among the largest and most elegant of the houses of Pompeii. It took up an entire city block (c. 80 m. long by 35 m. wide or 315 by 115 ft.) and was filled with beautiful works of art, including the famous mosaic depicting Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus, and wall paintings of the First, Second and Fourth Styles. The decoration of the house is heavily influenced by Hellenistic models. The House of the Faun was originally built in the early second century. In this period, the house was focused around two atria, one a large Tuscan atrium (3), and the other a smaller tetrastyle atrium (10), while the back of the house had a large kitchen garden. The two-atria plan represented an attempt to separate the formal functions of the atrium, i.e., the reception of clients and conduct of business by the patron of the house, from its private functions, i.e., the course of everyday family life. This type of plan is an intermediate step between the simple atrium house, with a single atrium complex, and the atrium and peristyle house. Apparently, the two-atria plan did not prove ultimately satisfactory for the owners of the House of the Faun. In the late second century B.C. they added a peristyle (8) to the north of the original two-atria nucleus, along with a service quarter to the eastern side (12-16), and reception rooms to the north. The rear of the house contained the kitchen garden. To this later period of the house belong its wall decorations in First Style and its famous mosaics. Finally, another peristyle was added around the time of the Early Roman Colony (20), that is, in the early first century B.C. This peristyle included more reception rooms along the south side (17 & 18), and smaller rooms, perhaps for servants, to the north (22) . The center of the new peristyle was occupied by the kitchen garden (19). With these renovations, the house acquired a new focus around the peristyles. The peristyles represented a private retreat for the family, a place where they could relax and entertain special guests. The front part of the house was kept for more formal occasions. The addition of service quarters reflects a further differentiation of function in the house, again separating the daily life of the family from the more public reception areas. The House of the Faun, with its elaborate decoration and extensive plan, represents one of the most important examples of Roman domus architecture of the second to first century B.C.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- House of Fauno with bronze statuette of Fauno and nice mosaic floorFLOOR PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN Pompeii 2nd Century Courtesy of Professor Barbette Spaeth, Tulane University (Excerpted from Professor Spaeth's accompanying text) This house was among the largest and most elegant of the houses of Pompeii. It took up an entire city block (c. 80 m. long by 35 m. wide or 315 by 115 ft.) and was filled with beautiful works of art, including the famous mosaic depicting Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus, and wall paintings of the First, Second and Fourth Styles. The decoration of the house is heavily influenced by Hellenistic models. The House of the Faun was originally built in the early second century. In this period, the house was focused around two atria, one a large Tuscan atrium (3), and the other a smaller tetrastyle atrium (10), while the back of the house had a large kitchen garden. The two-atria plan represented an attempt to separate the formal functions of the atrium, i.e., the reception of clients and conduct of business by the patron of the house, from its private functions, i.e., the course of everyday family life. This type of plan is an intermediate step between the simple atrium house, with a single atrium complex, and the atrium and peristyle house. Apparently, the two-atria plan did not prove ultimately satisfactory for the owners of the House of the Faun. In the late second century B.C. they added a peristyle (8) to the north of the original two-atria nucleus, along with a service quarter to the eastern side (12-16), and reception rooms to the north. The rear of the house contained the kitchen garden. To this later period of the house belong its wall decorations in First Style and its famous mosaics. Finally, another peristyle was added around the time of the Early Roman Colony (20), that is, in the early first century B.C. This peristyle included more reception rooms along the south side (17 & 18), and smaller rooms, perhaps for servants, to the north (22) . The center of the new peristyle was occupied by the kitchen garden (19). With these renovations, the house acquired a new focus around the peristyles. The peristyles represented a private retreat for the family, a place where they could relax and entertain special guests. The front part of the house was kept for more formal occasions. The addition of service quarters reflects a further differentiation of function in the house, again separating the daily life of the family from the more public reception areas. The House of the Faun, with its elaborate decoration and extensive plan, represents one of the most important examples of Roman domus architecture of the second to first century B.CPeter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- House of Fauno with nice mosaic floorFLOOR PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN Pompeii 2nd Century Courtesy of Professor Barbette Spaeth, Tulane University (Excerpted from Professor Spaeth's accompanying text) This house was among the largest and most elegant of the houses of Pompeii. It took up an entire city block (c. 80 m. long by 35 m. wide or 315 by 115 ft.) and was filled with beautiful works of art, including the famous mosaic depicting Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus, and wall paintings of the First, Second and Fourth Styles. The decoration of the house is heavily influenced by Hellenistic models. The House of the Faun was originally built in the early second century. In this period, the house was focused around two atria, one a large Tuscan atrium (3), and the other a smaller tetrastyle atrium (10), while the back of the house had a large kitchen garden. The two-atria plan represented an attempt to separate the formal functions of the atrium, i.e., the reception of clients and conduct of business by the patron of the house, from its private functions, i.e., the course of everyday family life. This type of plan is an intermediate step between the simple atrium house, with a single atrium complex, and the atrium and peristyle house. Apparently, the two-atria plan did not prove ultimately satisfactory for the owners of the House of the Faun. In the late second century B.C. they added a peristyle (8) to the north of the original two-atria nucleus, along with a service quarter to the eastern side (12-16), and reception rooms to the north. The rear of the house contained the kitchen garden. To this later period of the house belong its wall decorations in First Style and its famous mosaics. Finally, another peristyle was added around the time of the Early Roman Colony (20), that is, in the early first century B.C. This peristyle included more reception rooms along the south side (17 & 18), and smaller rooms, perhaps for servants, to the north (22) . The center of the new peristyle was occupied by the kitchen garden (19). With these renovations, the house acquired a new focus around the peristyles. The peristyles represented a private retreat for the family, a place where they could relax and entertain special guests. The front part of the house was kept for more formal occasions. The addition of service quarters reflects a further differentiation of function in the house, again separating the daily life of the family from the more public reception areas. The House of the Faun, with its elaborate decoration and extensive plan, represents one of the most important examples of Roman domus architecture of the second to first century B.CPeter Wissing
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Italy- Pompeii- The big theatre and the Gladiator school in the backgroundThe big theatre
Built in the 2nd century BC, this theatre takes advantage of the natural slope of the land to create the tiers of seats (cavea), in a horseshoe shape divided into three zones, of which the lower (ima cavea), covered with marble, was reserved for the decurions and important citizens. The ring corridor supporting the upper tiers, and the 'balconies' above the side entrances, were added during the Augustan period: thus the theatre could hold approximately 5,000 spectators. The stage and opus latericium backdrop decorated with marbles and statues date from the restoration in 62 AD, after the earthquake. The works performed here quite likely included the Atellanae (popular farces in the Oscan language), the plays of Plautus and Terentius, mimes and pantomimes (with dancing and music).
Gladiators Barracks in the background.
This building was originally a meeting-place for spectators who went to the Great Theatre.
In Neros time it was converted to quarters for the gladiators who used to live there with their
families and used it to practice gladiatorial contests. The family living areas were spread over two floors.
Many fascinating weapons were discovered here and are on display in the Archeological Museum
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum constructed by Flavius and seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outside 1Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Forum Romanum and the Basilica of MajencioThe Basilica of Maxentius (Basilica Maxentii) or the Basilica of Constantine (Basilica Constantini) was the last of the great civilian basilicas on the Roman Forum. The ruins of the basilica is located between the Temple of Amor and Roma and the Temple of Romulus, on the Via Sacra.
The construction of the basilica was initiated by Maxentius in 308 CE, and finished by Constantine after he had defeated Maxentius in the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE. As other similar buildings, it was destined for commercial and administrative activities. It is likely that the basilica housed the offices of the Prefect of the City, the highest imperial official in late antiquity.
The site chosen for the basilica was on the Velia, a low ridge connecting the Esquiline Hill and the Palatine Hill. Large parts of the Velia was levelled in preparation for the construction of the basilica. Literary sources tell that earlier the site was occupied by the Horrea Piperatica, the central market and storage facility for pepper and spices, built in the time of Domitian. Also on the site was a sanctuary of the penates publici which had to be moved.
The Basilica of Maxentius is built with arches, which is very atypical. All the other public basilicas had flat ceilings supported by wooden beams. The construction techniques used borrowed more from the great imperial baths than from the traditional basilica.
The basilica is one of the most impressive buildings on the Forum Romanum. The ground plan is rectangular, oriented E.-W., covering an area of 100×65m divided into a central nave and to lateral aisles and an atrium on the E. side where the original entrance was.
The central nave measured 80×25m and was covered by three groin vaults with a maximum height of 35m, supported by eight monolithic Corinthian columns of 14.5m. Each of the two aisles was made up of three interconnected coffered vaults, 20.5m wide and 24m high, communicating with the central nave by three huge openings.
Light was provided by two rows of three large windows in five of the six lateral vaults, and by windows in the sides of the now collapsed cross vaults over the central nave. The windows in two of the vaults in the surviving N. side of the building give a good idea of the amount of light inside the building.
The floor in both the central and the lateral spaces were a geometric pattern of squares with circles and lozenges of multi-coloured marble, similar to the floor in the Pantheon.
The walls were in opus latericium, originally with a marble veneer. The vaults were in opus caementicium with a gilded stucco finish. The roof was covered with gilded bronze tiles.
The entrance of the original project of Maxentius was to the east, from a branch of the old Via Sacra behind the Temple of Amor and Roma. It lead into an elongated atrium, connected to the central nave and the lateral aisles by five gateways.
In the W. end was a huge apse, 20m in diameter, where a colossal seated statue of Maxentius stood. This statue was later changed to look like Constantine. The statue was an acrolith (the head, hands and feet were of marble, while the rest was of other materials), and the remains of the statue were found in 1486 in the apse.
Constantine changed the plan when he took over the unfinished basilica. He had a another entrance added on the S. side, on the Via Sacra, where a monumental stairway led to a porch of four porphyry columns and via three double doorways into the central part of the S. aisle. In front of this new entrance, in the central vault of the N. aisle, another apse was added, smaller than the apse in the W. end. In back of this apse a niche held a standing statue of Constantine, and smaller, square-headed niches, two rows of four niches on each side, which might have housed a gallery of Constantine's relatives and lieutenants. This room could be closed by wooden doors, and it is likely the central part of the office of the Prefect of the City was there.
Of the original building only the three vaults of the N. aisle remain, devoid of all decorations. The vaults of the S. and central nave probably collapsed under an earthquake in c. 847. The floor plan is clearly visible, however, and the remaining structures give a vivid impression of the grandeur of the original edifice.
The remains of the Colossal Statue of Constantine I are in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Campidoglio, and one of the columns from the central nave was moved to the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in 1614. The remaining columns have disappeared. The bronze tiles from the roof were reused for the first Basilica of Saint Peter.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Forum Romanum Basilica JuliaThe Basilica Julia was built in 54-48 BCE by Julius Caesar as a part of his reorganisation of the Forum Romanum, where it replaced the Basilica Sempronia. It is located on the S. side of the main square of the Forum Romanum, between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor and Pollux.
Julius Caesar started construction in 54 BCE, but it was still unfinished at his death. It was built on the site of the Basilica Sempronia and a series of shops, the tabernae veteres, that were all demolished.
Augustus finished the building after Caesar's death, but had to reconstruct it again shortly after, due to its destruction by fire in 9 BCE. It was dedicated again in 2 BCE, this time in the name of Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, Augustus' designated heirs at the time.
The basilica was later damaged much by the fire in 283 CE, and restored a few years after by Diocletian. It was again destroyed when Alaric sacked the city in 410 CE.
The Basilica Julia was of huge proportions. The basilica rested on a low podium, seven steps high on the E. side and just one on the W. side, due to the sloping terrain. Of outer dimensions 101×49m, the central nave of the basilica was 82×18m. The four lateral aisles, two on each side, were two storeys high, with vaulted ceiling and arches decorated by semi-columns. The central nave was three storeys high.
A series of shops stood behind the basilica towards the Velabrum. A Temple of Augustus was also built in the area behind the basilica by Tiberius.
The function of the Basilica Julia was to house tribunals and other activities from the Forum when weather didn't permit outdoor meetings. The central nave probably divided in four by wooden removable structures to allow the hearing of more cases at a time. The basilica also housed some administrative offices of the city.
Game boards and graffiti are incised in the steps and in the pavement of the side aisles by idling visitors to the Forum. Some of this can still be seen on the side of the main square of the forum.
The building was in ruin already in late Antiquity, and subsequently stripped of all reusable material, i.e., almost everything.
Very little of the building remains now. The basic floor plan can be seen, and some parts of brick walls remain towards the Temple of Saturn, some bases of statues still in their original position, and the four step podium remain. The brick column bases are reconstructions of the 19th century.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Forum Romanum The Basilica of Majencio and the temple of CastorsThe Basilica of Maxentius (Basilica Maxentii) or the Basilica of Constantine (Basilica Constantini) was the last of the great civilian basilicas on the Roman Forum. The ruins of the basilica is located between the Temple of Amor and Roma and the Temple of Romulus, on the Via Sacra.
The construction of the basilica was initiated by Maxentius in 308 CE, and finished by Constantine after he had defeated Maxentius in the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE. As other similar buildings, it was destined for commercial and administrative activities. It is likely that the basilica housed the offices of the Prefect of the City, the highest imperial official in late antiquity.
The site chosen for the basilica was on the Velia, a low ridge connecting the Esquiline Hill and the Palatine Hill. Large parts of the Velia was levelled in preparation for the construction of the basilica. Literary sources tell that earlier the site was occupied by the Horrea Piperatica, the central market and storage facility for pepper and spices, built in the time of Domitian. Also on the site was a sanctuary of the penates publici which had to be moved.
The Basilica of Maxentius is built with arches, which is very atypical. All the other public basilicas had flat ceilings supported by wooden beams. The construction techniques used borrowed more from the great imperial baths than from the traditional basilica.
The basilica is one of the most impressive buildings on the Forum Romanum. The ground plan is rectangular, oriented E.-W., covering an area of 100×65m divided into a central nave and to lateral aisles and an atrium on the E. side where the original entrance was.
The central nave measured 80×25m and was covered by three groin vaults with a maximum height of 35m, supported by eight monolithic Corinthian columns of 14.5m. Each of the two aisles was made up of three interconnected coffered vaults, 20.5m wide and 24m high, communicating with the central nave by three huge openings.
Light was provided by two rows of three large windows in five of the six lateral vaults, and by windows in the sides of the now collapsed cross vaults over the central nave. The windows in two of the vaults in the surviving N. side of the building give a good idea of the amount of light inside the building.
The floor in both the central and the lateral spaces were a geometric pattern of squares with circles and lozenges of multi-coloured marble, similar to the floor in the Pantheon.
The walls were in opus latericium, originally with a marble veneer. The vaults were in opus caementicium with a gilded stucco finish. The roof was covered with gilded bronze tiles.
The entrance of the original project of Maxentius was to the east, from a branch of the old Via Sacra behind the Temple of Amor and Roma. It lead into an elongated atrium, connected to the central nave and the lateral aisles by five gateways.
In the W. end was a huge apse, 20m in diameter, where a colossal seated statue of Maxentius stood. This statue was later changed to look like Constantine. The statue was an acrolith (the head, hands and feet were of marble, while the rest was of other materials), and the remains of the statue were found in 1486 in the apse.
Constantine changed the plan when he took over the unfinished basilica. He had a another entrance added on the S. side, on the Via Sacra, where a monumental stairway led to a porch of four porphyry columns and via three double doorways into the central part of the S. aisle. In front of this new entrance, in the central vault of the N. aisle, another apse was added, smaller than the apse in the W. end. In back of this apse a niche held a standing statue of Constantine, and smaller, square-headed niches, two rows of four niches on each side, which might have housed a gallery of Constantine's relatives and lieutenants. This room could be closed by wooden doors, and it is likely the central part of the office of the Prefect of the City was there.
Of the original building only the three vaults of the N. aisle remain, devoid of all decorations. The vaults of the S. and central nave probably collapsed under an earthquake in c. 847. The floor plan is clearly visible, however, and the remaining structures give a vivid impression of the grandeur of the original edifice.
The remains of the Colossal Statue of Constantine I are in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Campidoglio, and one of the columns from the central nave was moved to the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in 1614. The remaining columns have disappeared. The bronze tiles from the roof were reused for the first Basilica of Saint Peter.
Peter Wissing
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Jordan, Jerash, (Gerasa, Decapolis)Ancient Greek inscriptions from the city support that the city was founded by Alexander the Great and his general Perdiccas, who allegedly settled aged Macedonian soldiers there during the spring of 331 BC, when he left Egypt and crossed Syria en route to Mesopotamia. However, other sources, namely the city's former name of "Antioch on the Chrysorrhoas, point to a founding by Seleucid King Antioch IV, while still others attribute the founding to Ptolemy II of Egypt.
After the Roman conquest in 63 BC, Jerash and the land surrounding it were annexed to the Roman province of Syria, and later joined the Decapolis league of cities. The historian Josephus mentions the city as being principally inhabited by Syrians, and also having a small Jewish community. In AD 106, Jerash was absorbed into the Roman province of Arabia, which included the city of Philadelphia (modern day Amman). The Romans ensured security and peace in this area, which enabled its people to devote their efforts and time to economic development and encouraged civic building activity.
Jerash is considered one of the largest and most well-preserved sites of Roman architecture in the world outside Italy. And is sometimes misleadingly referred to as the "Pompeii of the Middle East" or of Asia, referring to its size, extent of excavation and level of preservation.
Jerash was the birthplace of the mathematician Nicomachus of Gerasa (Greek: Νικόμαχος) (c. 60 – c. 120 AD).
In the second half of the 1st century AD, the city of Jerash achieved great prosperity. In AD 106, the Emperor Trajan constructed roads throughout the province, and more trade came to Jerash. The Emperor Hadrian visited Jerash in AD 129–130. The triumphal arch (or Arch of Hadrian) was built to celebrate his visit.
The city finally reached a size of about 800,000 square meters within its walls. The Persian invasion in AD 614 caused the rapid decline of Jerash. Beneath the foundations of a Byzantine church that was built in Jerash in AD 530 there was discovered a mosaic floor with ancient Greek and Hebrew-Aramaic inscriptions. The presence of the Hebrew-Aramaic script has led scholars to think that the place was formerly a synagogue, before being converted into a church.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerash
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Place_ovale_de_Gerasa_new.JPG
Azurfrog, 2 November 2013
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Joe Sermarini
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Lucius Caesius. 112-111 BCLares (pl.) (also called Genii loci or, more archaically, Lases) were Roman deities protecting the house and the family - household gods. See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.
Lares are presumed sons of Hermes and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof (but some statues were also on some crossings of roads). Of the Lares proper, there are only two, and they had inferior power. Over time, their power was extended over houses, country, sea, cities, etc., as the Lares became conflated with other Roman deities and protective spirits.
The Genius loci was presumed taking part in all that happened inside the house, and a statue was also put on the table during the meals.
In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Mani, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates too (other minor deities).
Lucius Caesius. 112-111 BC. AR Denarius (20mm, 3.84 g). Bust of Vejovis left, seen from behind, hurling thunderbolt; monogram behind / The two Lares seated right with a dog between them; head of Vulcan and tongs above. Crawford 298/1; Sydenham 564; Caesia 1. Ex-CNGecoli
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MAGNA GRECIA LUCANIA PAESTUMMAGNA GRECIA
LUCANIA
PAESTUM (Poseidonia)
Bronze semis. Circa 90-44 BC.
15mm, 3.41gm.
Obv: Female head right; MINEIA • M • F behind.
Rev: Two-story building; P-S flanking upper floor, S-C flanking lower.
Crawford, Paestum 38b; HN Italy 1258.
Rare.Ancient Aussie
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MAGNA GRECIA LUCANIA PAESTUMMAGNA GRECIA LUCANIA PAESTUM
MAGNA GRECIA
LUCANIA
PAESTUM (Poseidonia)
Bronze semis. Circa 90-44 BC.
16mm, 3.58gm.
Obv: Female head right; MINEIA • M • F behind.
Rev: Two-story building; P-S flanking upper floor, S-C flanking lower.
Crawford, Paestum 38b; HN Italy 1258.
Rare.Ancient Aussie
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Maximinus I AD 235-238 AR Denarius , Rome mint 2nd emissionMaximinus I. AD 235-238. AR Denarius (20mm, 3.70 g, 6h). Rome mint. 2nd emission, AD 236. Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / Salus seated left, feeding from patera serpent rising from altar, resting arm on chair. RIC IV 14; RSC 85a. Traces of luster. Superb EF.
Salus was the Roman goddess of health. She was Hygieia to the Greeks (Her name is the source of the word "hygiene." ) , she was the daughter of Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, and Epione, the goddess of soothing of pain. Her father Asclepius learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. Woman seeking fertility, the sick, and the injured slept in his temples in chambers where non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor and provide healing.
*The logo of Pharmacology was taken from Salus 's Patera and snake .
From The Sam Mansourati Collection / Pharmacist Miss . Lama Sharestan Collection.Sam
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Moesia inferior, Markianopolis, 19. Caracalla & Julia Domna, HrJ (2013) 6.19.46.27Caracalla & Julia Domna, AD 198-217
AE26, 11.43g, 26.27mm, 45°
struck under governor Quintilianus
obv. [ANTWNINOC] AVGOVCTOC IOVLIA - DOMNA
confronted busts of the Imperial pair
rev. VP KVNTILIANOV MARKIANOPOLITWN
Triumphal arch, with two floors, three doors, two windows; above four figures, from
l. to r.: Caracalla with sceptre(?), Severus, Julia Domna, and - a bit smaller - Geta
on r. side E (for Pentassarion)
ref. a) AMNG I/1, 695 (1 ex., Mandl)
b) Varbanov (engl.) 1041
c) Hristova/Jekov (2013) No.6.19.46.27
d) BMC 20
rare, about VF/superb EF
This type seems to depict a triumphal arch erected in Marcianopolis. For the 4 figures on top will be no other interpretation possible than that suggested by A.v.Sallet (Cat. Berlin 58, 11) of the Imperial family...So we have in te middle Severus and Domna, on the l. side Caracalla and on the r. side a bit smaller Geta. The triumphal arch seems to be erected under Severus but appears not until Caracalla's sole reign, probably at the beginning because Geta is depicted too (Pick).
Jochen
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Morocco, LixusLixus is the site of an ancient Roman city located in Morocco just north of the modern seaport of Larache on the bank of the Loukkos River. The location was one of the main cities of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana .
Ancient Lixus is located on Tchemmich Hill on the right bank of the Loukkos River (other names: Oued Loukous; Locus River), just to the north of the modern seaport of Larache. The site lies within the urban perimeter of Larache, and about three kilometers inland from the mouth of the river and the Atlantic ocean. From its 80 meters above the plain the site dominates the marshes through which the river flows. To the north, Lixus is surrounded by hills which themselves are bordered to the north and east by a forest of cork oaks.
Among the ruins there are Roman baths, temples, 4th century walls, a mosaic floor, a Christian church and the intricate and confusing remains of the Capitol Hill.
Lixus was first settled by the Phoenicians in the 7th century BC and was later annexed by Carthage. Lixus was part of a chain of Phoenician/Carthaginian settlements along the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco; other major settlements further to the south are Chellah (called Sala Colonia by the Romans) and Mogador. When Carthage fell to Ancient Rome, Lixus, Chellah and Mogador became imperial outposts of the Roman province Mauretania Tingitana.
The ancient sources agree to make of Lixus a counter Phoenician, which is confirmed by the archaeological discovery of material dating from 8th century BC. It gradually grew in importance, later coming under Carthaginian domination. After the destruction of Carthage, Lixus fell to Roman control and was made an imperial colony, reaching its zenith during the reign of the emperor Claudius I (AD 41-54).
Some ancient Greek writers located at Lixus the mythological garden of the Hesperides, the keepers of the golden apples. The name of the city was often mentioned by writers from Hanno the Navigator to the Geographer of Ravenna, and confirmed by the legend on its coins and by an inscription. The ancients believed Lixus to be the site of the Garden of the Hesperides and of a sanctuary of Hercules, where Hercules gathered gold apples, more ancient than the one at Cadiz, Spain. However, there are no grounds for the claim that Lixus was founded at the end of the second millennium BC.
Lixus flourished during the Roman Empire, mainly when Claudius established a Roman Colonia with full rights for the citizens. Lixus was one of the few Roman cities in Berber Africa that enjoyed an amphitheater: the amphitheater at Lixus. In the third century Lixus become nearly fully Christian and there are even now the ruins of a paleochristian church overlooking the archeological area. The Arab invasions destroyed the Roman city. Some berber life was maintained there nevertheless until one century after the Islamic conquest of North Africa by the presence of a mosque and a house with patio with the covered walls of painted stuccos.
The site was excavated continuously from 1948 to 1969. In the 1960s, Lixus was restored and consolidated. In 1989, following an international conference which brought together many scientists, specialists, historians and archaeologists of the Mediterranean around the history and archaeology of Lixus, the site was partly enclosed. Work was undertaken to study the Roman mosaics of the site, which constitute a very rich unit. In addition to the vestiges interesting to discover the such mosaics whose one of sixty meters representing Poseidon. Lixus was on a surface of approximately 75 hectares (190 acres). The excavated zones constitute approximately 20% of the total surface of the site.
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on July 1, 1995 in the Cultural category.Joe Sermarini
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Octavian - denarius - Sear 1557, Sear Imperators 421, Clive Foss 15, Van Meter 27, RIC I 266Denarius, 21 mm, 3,47 gr
Bare head of Octavian right /
IMP CAESAR on the architrave of the Roman Senate House (Curia Julia), Curia Julia, central paneled doors with three rows of three medallions, three windows above and porch supported by four short columns. Legend on the architrave of the Curia Juli. Surmounting the apex of roof, a statue of Victory facing with wreath in right hand and vexillum in left, on globe. At the extremities of the architrave two statues of standing figures turned inward, scepter in outer hand and parazonium in inner hand. In the pediment a figure is shown seated between two birds vis-à-vis.
The construction of the Curia Julia, the new senate house, began under Julius Caesar in 44 BC. It was completed and dedicated by Octavian on 28 August 29 BC. The remains of the Senate House are still visible today and appears is fairly well-preserved due to the fact that it was converted into a Church for St. Hadrian in 630 CE. Much of the original decoration was removed either after the conversion of the building into a church or after the forum itself was abandoned, however a lot of the marble flooring remains impeccably preserved. Limes
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PergamonThe oldest section of Pergamon, the acropolis or upper city, sits on an impressive steep ridge between two tributaries of the Caicus river. The ridge is naturally fortified on all but the S side which slopes down to the Caicus valley floor. The Caicus valley provides access from Pergamon to the Aegean coast and the port town of Elaea in the W and the Persian Royal Road to the E.
The upper city, which was fortified in the 4th or 3rd century B.C. contains the 3rd century Sanctuary of Athena, the oldest cult center of the city as well as palace quarters, barracks, and arsenals. In the 2nd century B.C. the 10,000 seat theater, the library adjacent to the Sanctuary of Athena, and the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena were added. In the 2nd century A.D. the monumental Trajaneum was erected on what must have been an earlier unknown cult center. From the upper agora a paved main street leads S and downslope to the middle city.
The city of Pergamon began to extend down the S slope in the 3rd century B.C. and during the 2nd century a massive building program completely transformed the entire lower slope. The major construction in the area was the gigantic gymnasium complex which extended down three large terraces linked by vaulted stairways and passages. The complex encorporated three open training courts, a covered track or xystus, a small theater or odeum, several shrines, and two large baths. Other major sections of the middle city included the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and, below the gymnasium along the main street leading to the Eumenes' Gate, the lower agora. North and E of the gymnasium massive terraces support the streets and houses of the residential quarter. In the first half of the 2nd century B.C. Eumenes II strengthened the entire fortification system of Pergamon and enclosed all of the middle city, which extended almost to the base of the south slope, within the new walls.
During the Roman Imperial period the city continued to expand southward and spread over the plain and the area occuppied by modern Bergama. The large Sanctuary of the Egyptian Gods (the "Kizil Avlu"), numerous bridges, and remains of the Roman stadium, theater, and amphitheater remain visible today.
Pergamon emerged as a power during the struggle for territorial control following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. By the middle of the 3rd century Pergamon had been established as an independent state under the leadership of the Attalid dynasty. The power of the Attalids and the city grew as a result of successful battles against the Gauls of central Anatolia and careful political alliances with Rome.
The peak period of Pergamene power and achievement was reached during the reign of Eumenes II (197-159 B.C.). The kingdom had grown to include most of western Anatolia and was rich in agriculture and industry. Noted industrial exports included textiles, fine pottery, and "Pergamene paper" or parchment. The last industry developed when Ptolemy, reportedly jealous of the growing fame of the library in Pergamon, prohibited the export of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes II enlarged the city of Pergamon to include all of the southern slope and enclosed the city with a new and stronger fortification wall. In addition to the major new constructions in the lower city Eumenes also commissioned the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena, the theater, and the new library in the upper city.
In the 2nd century B.C. Pergamon rivalled Athens and Alexandria as centers of Hellenic culture. The city possessed one of the greatest libraries of antiquity, monumental gymnasia, and numerous religious sanctuaries, including the Asklepion outside the city walls. Pergamon was a haven for noted philosophers and artists and was the center of a major movement in Hellenistic sculpture. The Attalids supported the arts and learning in Pergamon and elsewhere and made major donations, such as the Stoa of Attalos II in Athens.
The last Attalid ruler, Attalos III, bequeathed the kingdom of Pergamon to Rome in 133 B.C. During Roman rule the prosperity of Pergamon continued and the city had a period of commercial expansion. The city itself expanded to the plain S and W of the acropolis across the flat land now occuppied by modern Bergama.
See: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/siteindex?lookup=Pergamon
Cleisthenes
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Petronas TowersPetronas Towers, note the skybridge at the 41st floor.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.rexesq
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Phrygia, Apameia, SNG von Aulock 3470Apameia, 88-40 BC.
AE 22, 7.52g, 21.59mm, 0°
struck under the magistrate Heraklei Eglo
obv. laureate head of Zeus n.r.
rev. r. from top to bottom AÎ AM[E]
l. in 2 lines from top to bottom HPAKΛE[I] / [EΓΛO]
Cult statue of Artemis Anaitis wearing floor-length veil and polos
standing frontal
ref: SNG by Aulock 3470; BMC 67-71; Weber 7028; SNG Copenhagen 183;
Mionnet VII, 127; SNG Munich 123; HGC 772
VF+, fine sand patina
Mionne writes "Junon Pronuba!"
Note:
Eglo(...) probably stands for Eklogistes, the title of the municipal financial supervisor.
Anaitis is the Greek translation of Anahita, the name of an Iranian goddess.Jochen
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Pompeii Dove Floor MosaicFloor mosaics in a home in PompeiiJay GT4
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Pompeii MosaicsFloor mosaics in the house of a Patrician family. Extensively restored they actually allow you to walk on it!Jay GT4
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Portugal, Algarve, Site of Milreuremains of roman villa underneath a 16th cent farmer house, mosaic floorpax
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Portugal, Algarve, Site of Milreuremains of the floor of a roman villa (with heating) underneath a 16th cent. farmer housepax
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Portugal, Algarve, Site of Milreuspace for the warm air that heated the floorpax
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ROMAN EMPIRE / Emperor Gordian III , AD ( 238 – 244 )Silver Denarius , Rome mint , 3.18 gr .
Obverse ; IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG { IMP[erator] GORDIANVS PIVS FEL[ix] AVG[vstvs] / Emperor Gordianus, Dutiful Wise Augustus } , laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right, from behind.
Reverse ; SALVS AVGVSTI, ( [Dedicated to] To the health of the Emperors ) Salus standing right, draped, from patera held in left hand, feeding snake held in right hand .
References ; RIC IV 129A (R), RSC IV 325, Hunter III 62, SRCV III 8681.
Choice EF example , excellent portrait, and artistic well executed dies.
From The Sam Mansourati Collection./ NO. RI 20610.
Given as a souvenir to a dear friend. ( 8/18/2016 )
Salus was the Roman goddess of health. She was Hygieia to the Greeks ( Her name is the source of the word "hygiene." ) , who believed her to be the daughter of Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, and Epione, the goddess of soothing of pain. Her father Asclepius learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. Woman seeking fertility, the sick, and the injured slept in his temples in chambers where non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor and provide healing.
*The logo of Pharmacology was taken from Salus 's Patera and snake .
Sam
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ROMAN EMPIRE / Emperor Maximinus I (AD 235 - 238) Silver Denarius Salus Maximinus I, 235 - 238 AD
Silver Denarius, Rome Mint, struck Mar 235 - Jan 236 A.D.
20mm, 3.23 gr.
Obverse: IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Maximinus right.
IMP[erator] MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG[vstvs] Emperor Maximinus Dutiful Augustus
Reverse: SALVS AVGVSTI ( [Dedicated to] To the health of the Emperors ) , Salus ( Hygieia - Greek - ), seated left, feeding snake rising up from altar, from Patera in right hand, resting left elbow on throne.
References ; RIC 85
A superb Choice EF masterpiece example , artistic and well executed dies.
From The Sam Mansourati Collection./ NO. RI 20450
Given as a souvenir to a dear friend. ( 8/18/2016 )
Salus was the Roman goddess of health. She was Hygieia to the Greeks (Her name is the source of the word "hygiene." ) , who believed her to be the daughter of Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, and Epione, the goddess of soothing of pain. Her father Asclepius learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. Woman seeking fertility, the sick, and the injured slept in his temples in chambers where non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor and provide healing.
*The logo of Pharmacology was taken from Salus 's Patera and snake .Sam
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Roman Empire, Titus Denarius RIC 131Titus AR Denarius Rome Mint, 80 AD
O: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
R: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Tripod, with fillets streaming out l. and r., on which are ravens r. and l., and in the center, dolphin over wreath: ('exuviae' of Apollo, for 'pulvinar' of Apollo and Diana (?)).
- RIC 131 (R), BMC 82, RSC 323a
Reka Devnia hoard, recording only 3 specimens with ravens and the dolphin and 24 specimens of the regular type with only the dolphin. The dolphin, ravens, laurel and tripod are all symbols of Apollo. His most famous attribute is the tripod, the symbol of his prophetic powers. It was in the guise of a dolphin that Apollo brought priests from Crete to Delphi, explaining Apollo's cult title "Delphinios" and the name of the town. He dedicated a bronze tripod to the sanctuary and bestowed divine powers on one of the priestesses, and she became known as the "Pythia." It was she who inhaled the hallucinating vapors from the fissure in the temple floor, while she sat on a tripod chewing laurel leaves. After she mumbled her answer, a male priest would translate it for the supplicant.Nemonater
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Roman Glass VesselCirca 4th-5th century AD
5.5cm tall, 4.2cm wide.
ex Zurqieh
Nice Roman perfume bottle with flared rim, pinched neck and globular body, probably of Mid-Eastern origin.
Fully intact with a pale yellow tint.
“Then with fine oil, she smoothed herself, and this, her scented oil, unstoppered in the bronze-floored house of Zeus, cast fragrance over earth and heaven.”
~ Homer (Iliad 14, 142-145)
Update;
This item donated to the Hallie Ford museum in Salem Oregon.
Enodia
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Roman Mosaic - box of tesseraeWhile colored mosaic tesserae (or tiles) get the most attention,
and plain black, white or tan are common finds,
some floor material was made of plain local stone.
This box containing dozens of grey and grey-brown stone squares, mostly 2 x 2 x 2 cm,
was collected by a Lower Austrian farmer from his field over the years, who kindly sold it to me.
SC
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Roman Mosaic Tesserae - large squareSet of roughly four rows of four floor tiles or tesserae.
Made of hard white stone.
From the Middle East.
Total size 6.5 x 6.5 cm,
most tesserae are 1.5 x 1.5 x 1.5 cm.
Thin layer of concrete on back.
SC
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Roman Mosaic Tesserae - small squareSet of two rows of two floor tiles or tesserae.
Made of cream coloured stone.
From the Middle East.
Total size 4 x 4 cm,
most tesserae are 2 x 2 x 2 cm.
SC
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Roman Mosaic Tesserae - T-shaped fragmentSet of four rows of floor tiles or tesserae.
Made of tan coloured stone.
From Pannonia.
Total size 6 x 5.5 cm,
most tesserae are 1.5 x 1.5 x 1.5 cm.
Has thick concrete on the reverse.
SC
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ROMAN, Maximinus I (AD 235 - 238) Silver Denarius Salus Maximinus I, 235 - 238 AD
Silver Denarius, Rome Mint, struck Mar 235 - Jan 236 A.D.
20mm, 3.22 grams
Obverse: IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Maximinus right.
IMP[erator] MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG[vstvs] Emperor Maximinus Dutiful Augustus
Reverse: SALVS AVGVSTI ( [Dedicated to] To the health of the Emperors ) , Salus ( Hygieia - Greek - ), seated left, feeding snake rising up from altar, from Patera in right hand, resting left elbow on throne.
References ; RIC 85
A superb Choice EF masterpiece example , artistic and well executed dies.
From The Sam Mansourati Collection./ NO. RI 20450.
Given as a souvenir to a dear friend. ( 8/18/2016 )
Salus was the Roman goddess of health. She was Hygieia to the Greeks ( Her name is the source of the word "hygiene." ), who believed her to be the daughter of Aesculapius, the god of medicine and healing, and Epione, the goddess of soothing of pain. Her father Asclepius learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. Woman seeking fertility, the sick, and the injured slept in his temples in chambers where non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor and provide healing.
*The logo of Pharmacology was taken from Salus 's Patera and snake .Sam
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Italica is famous for its Mosaic floors. This is from the house of Neptunus. Who knows, perhaps Trajanus was born at this very Place? May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Detail showing Neptunus himself. Floor of the house of Neptunus. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Crocodile and the playful youngster... Detail of the floor of the house of Neptunus. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Detail of the floor of the house of Planetarium. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Section of the floor of the house of Birds. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Floor map of the house of Birds. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Detail of the floor of house of Birds. Cannot figure out the species... May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Detail of the floor of the house of Birds. Athene noctua - the typical Minerva owl. May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Santiponce, Italica.Fragments of old painted wall. very little is left of this type of structures.
The largest floor mosaics are in the Archelogical Museum in Sevilla but many fine ones were at the orginal site in May, 2002.jmuona
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Spain, Torre d'en Galmés, MenorcaPlace: Torre d'en Galmés, Menorca
Country: Spain
Torre d'en Galmés is situated on a small hill that dominates most of the southern part of the island Minorca. On clear days it is possible to see the mountains of neighbouring Majorca. In prehistoric times it would have been possible to observe a large numbers of talaiotic towns from this position which leads to think that Torre d'en Galmés exercised a position of authority.
The Cartailhac Circle, named in honour of the eminent French archaeologist Émile Cartailhac, author of "Primitive Monuments on the Balearic Islands (1892)", was inhabitated between 250-50 BC. Its external wall is made with flagstones placed vertically on a baseboard.
In the interior, we see the remains of a central patio, with numerous fallen architectural elements (mullions, lintels, pilasters...), and three rooms around it.
To each side of the entrance there is a small covered space, with the roof below the superior level of the stones of the external facade, which seems to indicate that, at least above these spaces, there was a floor.
Viriathus
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Spain, Torre d'en Galmés, Menorca - The Cartailhac CirclePlace: Torre d'en Galmés, Menorca
Country: Spain
Torre d'en Galmés is situated on a small hill that dominates most of the southern part of the island Minorca. On clear days it is possible to see the mountains of neighbouring Majorca. In prehistoric times it would have been possible to observe a large numbers of talaiotic towns from this position which leads to think that Torre d'en Galmés exercised a position of authority.
The Cartailhac Circle, named in honour of the eminent French archaeologist Émile Cartailhac, author of "Primitive Monuments on the Balearic Islands (1892)", was inhabitated between 250-50 BC. Its external wall is made with flagstones placed vertically on a baseboard.
In the interior, we see the remains of a central patio, with numerous fallen architectural elements (mullions, lintels, pilasters...), and three rooms around it.
To each side of the entrance there is a small covered space, with the roof below the superior level of the stones of the external facade, which seems to indicate that, at least above these spaces, there was a floor.
Viriathus
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Spain- Taragona- AmphitheatreThis conventional seating may be observed at the amphitheatre at Tarragona in northern Spain. Tarraco, its Latin name, was the capital of the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. The seating is essentially the same as that found in Rome’s Colosseum. The amphitheatre’s construction is dated to the second century AD, a time of extensive building of centres of public entertainment throughout the Mediterranean. On the right side, the seating was hewn from the bedrock, while on the left, or seaward side, the seating was built up from blocks, a phenomenon also found at Syracuse in Sicily.
However, in a recent visit to Pompeii some interesting divergence from the norm is easily to be observed, for which no reason appears to have been voiced. The town of Pompeii, destroyed in the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79, had a population in excess of 10,000, and was clearly a place of sufficient wealth to
sport not only an amphitheatre seating 20,000, but also a traditional Greek theatre and a smaller building called the Odeon. The "large" theatre, as it is now called, can seat an audience of 5,000, the "small" theatre, which was roofed, had accommodation for 500. Seating was according to rank, it is supposed, two side boxes (rather like the royal boxes of later theatres) for honoured guests, an inner cavea for the decurions or magistrates of the town, the middle rows for the more wealthy members of the community, the upper tiers for the ordinary citizens. If one looks closely it is clearly noticeable that this inner cavea consists of the first four or five rows of benches.
It is clear that, unlike the earlier form of the Greek theatres, the front rows are considerably wider than those higher up in the auditorium. The size of the seating is far beyond the dimensions of even a large and well-endowed personage, extending inwards for a good metre or more. The reasons for the additional size are unclear, because the larger width does not make these benches any more comfortable for the sitter, if anything they provide less support than the more narrow benches above. Presumably, the spectators brought cushions with them for lengthy performances in much the same way as fans for rugby or cricket matches do today. One solution may be that the wider seating allowed the dignatory to relax by reclining as if at dinner though this can hardly have been a posture acceptable for a quasi-religious festival nor one which would have endeared these wealthy members of the community to their less well-endowed fellows higher up, even if conspicuous consumption was the order of the day, particularly during the Roman empire.
In the "large" theatre the first four rows, in the "small" theatre and in the amphitheatre the first five rows stand out from the rest and, in fact, have their special place denoted by a partition. In some of the theatres in Greece, the officials judging the competitions, which were part and parcel of the festivals, and high ranking citizens might occupy a special bench, or the first row of the auditorium, but the broad nature of the bench at Pompeii appears unique. Pompeii began as a Oscan settlement in the 8th century BC and was heavily Hellenised by the 6th century. Thereafter, Pompeii had a fairly chequered history, being conquered and lost by the Etruscans and Samnites, before becoming a Roman colony in 80 BC. The Samnites of the central hills and the more local Oscan speakers, an Italic dialect which survived down to the period of the empire, remained culturally and linguistically influential, and it is possible that the Greek practice of uniformity in seating was altered by these Italic tribes who, at times, controlled Pompeii. On the other hand, there could be direct Roman or even Etruscan influence, though this formalised partitioning of seating is not seen in any of the archeaological sites in Rome or in nearby Campania, for example at Puteoli or at Capua. Finally, as for what purpose the large widths were intended, without clear evidence, and certainly with no ancient mention, means that speculation takes over. It could be that wooden seats rather like thrones were brought in, even sedan chairs for the high and mighty of the town, though it is worth bearing in mind that high-backed chairs easily obscured the views of those scarcely less wealthy immediately behind. The Roman males, it will be remembered, tended to lounge on low couches when they ate, rather than sitting in upright seats, which became popular only in the later Byzantine period. It also seems likely that, given the amount of space, it was not just the men who were seated here but entire families - perhaps picnic baskets as well. Refreshments were provided during performances, but the wealthy possibly brought their own equivalents of the modern cool bags and six-packs. The illustrations of the three places of entertainment at Pompeii do not appear to suggest that these special seating are the product of modern reconstructions, some of which have proved disastrous to ancient sites; and, therefore, there seems to be no alternative to accepting at least the idea that preferential seating was the order of the day in this rather provincial town on the Bay of Naples. Etruscan tombs often show their owners in a reclining position as if at a meal, and other forms of entertainment also feature which, overall, might suggest an influence here from north of the River Tiber.
Having dwelt at length, as it were, with the bottoms and the bottom-most seats of the ancient theatres and amphitheatres I now want to move on to the general ambience of the structure. The Roman amphitheatre or hippodrome were dirty smelly places where, by the end of the day’s proceedings, the stench from the dead and dying must have made an abatoir a sweet-smelling location. It is recorded that sprinkler systems were used in the Colosseum to spray the audience and the arena floor with scented water to alleviate the foulness of the atmosphere. By way of contrast, the Greek theatre must have been a place of peace and serenity, except for sore buttocks and aching backs.
Many commentators of the ancient theatre have sadly noted that the early pristine form, as found today at Epidaurus and Segesta, generally underwent alterations during the Roman period. It is noted that the slightly more than a semi-circular design was largely filled in during later antiquity by the Roman scena; and today many examples of the traditional Greek theatres sport Roman brickwork at the front which reached the same height, in some cases, as the uppermost tier of the cavea or auditorium. This height also allowed for a velabrum or canvass cover to be used to provide shade or shelter from the elements. At Taormina, ancient Tauromenium, for example:
"The brick scenic wall was preceded by a row of nine granite columns crowned by Corinthian capitals, which had both a decorative and bearing function, in that they supported the higher parts of the stage. The niches in the wall contained marble statues. On the sides, there are remains of the ‘parascenia’, square rooms used by actors and for scenic fittings. The actors entered the stage through side openings. A further row of sixteen columns closer to the orchestra framed the decorative front of the stage."
This is quite a departure from the earlier simplicity of the Greek theatre. However, it is certainly arguable that Baroque is not necessarily less pleasing than Romanesque even if blocking out the natural view also took the theatre out of its topographical or geographical context. For the purists among us, more sacrilege occurred, for instance, again at Taormina, where the first nine rows of the seating were removed making the orchestra large enough for gladiatorial combats and beast hunts, while at the same time allowing the audience safety high above the blood sports taking place below them. Of course, the construction of a front wall can easily be accounted for by the changing tastes in the entertainment itself, while the local audience presumably knew the view pretty well, and did not come to the theatre to gaze at Mount Etna. Furthermore, Taormina, high up on a hill overlooking the sea, had no extra space on which to build a new amphitheatre, more regularly the venue for gladiatorial combats. And it is also quite possible that there were simply insufficient funds. Taormina was neither a large nor a wealthy city.
Meanwhile, at Delphi the scena was "low so that the audience could enjoy the wonderful view", says one expert. Nonetheless, while the modern tourist may find the view as gratifying if not more so than the ruined theatre, the ancient audience came too see and hear the performances in honour of the Pythian Apollo. The ancient Greeks did not come for the view, they came for theatrical, religious even mystic experience. It is the modern philistine in us who enjoys the view. That being the case, the construction of the ancient theatre had little to do with searching for a site with a nice aspect, though these obviously exist, even in abundance, but for acoustic perfection and adequate accommodation. Finally, the best seats were closest to the stage and its proceedings, while the worst seats, for looking at the productions, had the best views. Does this mean that the most wealthy, with the largest bottoms, were obliged to watch the entertainment with no chance of letting the mind wander to the natural surroundings? Or does it mean that the women, slaves and poorest citizens, who sat high above the productions, probably could not hear or see what was going on hence took in the nice view instead. Therein lies the morality tale embedded in the title of this paper. If you had the means you were forced to take in the culture. If you were female or poor you could let your mind wander to other matters, including wonderful views of nature.
Peter Wissing
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Spain- Taragona- The Forum and Basilica Square with statue The colonial Forum
All Roman towns had a large square (forum) that was the political, social and business centre of town.
Architecturally, it was a large space surrounded by arcades and varius public buildings, separated into different areas- the religious and the civil. The sacred area was presided over by a temple dedicated to the Capatoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) or the deified emperor. This temple may have been accompanied by others of less importance. The civil area contained various buildings, the most important of which was probably the basilica, which served as a courthouse, a social meeting place, and the curia, or seat of the council composed of the city´s dignitaries.
Today only the basilica is preserved. This building is divided into three sections, separated by Corinthian columns, and was built in the period of Augustus (in the years before the birth of Christ). It housed the court, or aedes augusti. In front of the basilica there was a square, with various statues, on which several of the city´s streets converged. These streets delimited insulae, or “islands” of houses. The ground floors of the houses contained shops, warehouses and workshops, while the upper floors were where the people lived, crowded together in small rooms. Only the wealthiest of families could afford to live in a domus, a house with one or two storeys, several rooms distributed around an atrium, and other recreational areas.
Peter Wissing
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Spain- Taragona- The Forum- BasilicaThe colonial Forum
All Roman towns had a large square (forum) that was the political, social and business centre of town.
Architecturally, it was a large space surrounded by arcades and varius public buildings, separated into different areas- the religious and the civil. The sacred area was presided over by a temple dedicated to the Capatoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) or the deified emperor. This temple may have been accompanied by others of less importance. The civil area contained various buildings, the most important of which was probably the basilica, which served as a courthouse, a social meeting place, and the curia, or seat of the council composed of the city´s dignitaries.
Today only the basilica is preserved. This building is divided into three sections, separated by Corinthian columns, and was built in the period of Augustus (in the years before the birth of Christ). It housed the court, or aedes augusti. In front of the basilica there was a square, with various statues, on which several of the city´s streets converged. These streets delimited insulae, or “islands” of houses. The ground floors of the houses contained shops, warehouses and workshops, while the upper floors were where the people lived, crowded together in small rooms. Only the wealthiest of families could afford to live in a domus, a house with one or two storeys, several rooms distributed around an atrium, and other recreational areas.
Peter Wissing
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Spain- Taragona- The Forum- Basilica and CisternThe colonial Forum
All Roman towns had a large square (forum) that was the political, social and business centre of town.
Architecturally, it was a large space surrounded by arcades and varius public buildings, separated into different areas- the religious and the civil. The sacred area was presided over by a temple dedicated to the Capatoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) or the deified emperor. This temple may have been accompanied by others of less importance. The civil area contained various buildings, the most important of which was probably the basilica, which served as a courthouse, a social meeting place, and the curia, or seat of the council composed of the city´s dignitaries.
Today only the basilica is preserved. This building is divided into three sections, separated by Corinthian columns, and was built in the period of Augustus (in the years before the birth of Christ). It housed the court, or aedes augusti. In front of the basilica there was a square, with various statues, on which several of the city´s streets converged. These streets delimited insulae, or “islands” of houses. The ground floors of the houses contained shops, warehouses and workshops, while the upper floors were where the people lived, crowded together in small rooms. Only the wealthiest of families could afford to live in a domus, a house with one or two storeys, several rooms distributed around an atrium, and other recreational areas.
Peter Wissing
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Spain- Taragona- The Forum- Basilica and houseThe colonial Forum
All Roman towns had a large square (forum) that was the political, social and business centre of town.
Architecturally, it was a large space surrounded by arcades and varius public buildings, separated into different areas- the religious and the civil. The sacred area was presided over by a temple dedicated to the Capatoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) or the deified emperor. This temple may have been accompanied by others of less importance. The civil area contained various buildings, the most important of which was probably the basilica, which served as a courthouse, a social meeting place, and the curia, or seat of the council composed of the city´s dignitaries.
Today only the basilica is preserved. This building is divided into three sections, separated by Corinthian columns, and was built in the period of Augustus (in the years before the birth of Christ). It housed the court, or aedes augusti. In front of the basilica there was a square, with various statues, on which several of the city´s streets converged. These streets delimited insulae, or “islands” of houses. The ground floors of the houses contained shops, warehouses and workshops, while the upper floors were where the people lived, crowded together in small rooms. Only the wealthiest of families could afford to live in a domus, a house with one or two storeys, several rooms distributed around an atrium, and other recreational areas.
Peter Wissing
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Spain- Taragona- The Forum- CourtThe colonial Forum
All Roman towns had a large square (forum) that was the political, social and business centre of town.
Architecturally, it was a large space surrounded by arcades and varius public buildings, separated into different areas- the religious and the civil. The sacred area was presided over by a temple dedicated to the Capatoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) or the deified emperor. This temple may have been accompanied by others of less importance. The civil area contained various buildings, the most important of which was probably the basilica, which served as a courthouse, a social meeting place, and the curia, or seat of the council composed of the city´s dignitaries.
Today only the basilica is preserved. This building is divided into three sections, separated by Corinthian columns, and was built in the period of Augustus (in the years before the birth of Christ). It housed the court, or aedes augusti. In front of the basilica there was a square, with various statues, on which several of the city´s streets converged. These streets delimited insulae, or “islands” of houses. The ground floors of the houses contained shops, warehouses and workshops, while the upper floors were where the people lived, crowded together in small rooms. Only the wealthiest of families could afford to live in a domus, a house with one or two storeys, several rooms distributed around an atrium, and other recreational areas.
Peter Wissing
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