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Image search results - "abundance"

Antoninus Pius - AE Dupondius

Roman Empire
Emperor Antoninus Pius. 138 - 161 AD. AE-Dupondius. Rome Mint.

obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P IMP II - Radiate head of Antoninus Pius right
rev: TR POT XIX COS IIII - Annona seated right, holding cornucopia; at feet, modius.
'S C' below, in exergue.

25.83mm, 11.80g.2 commentsrexesq

TRAJAN
Dupondius 98-99 A.D.
26.3mm, 9.3 grams

OBV: IMP CAES NERVA TRAIAN AVG GERM PM,
Emperor radiate head right.
REV: TR POT COS III PP, Abundance seated left on chair formed of two cornucopiae, holding scepter.
RIC-II-398

*IMITATION OTTOMAN Cedid MahmudiyeThis piece came in a bag of modern Foreign coins - 21 pounds! May be gold inside!!!
The dating did not seem right to me! From the experts at Zeno, I found a similar issue..... This attribution from Zeno:
Imitation of gold cedid mahmudiye (KM, Turkey #645) with distorted inscriptions and fantasy regnal year 78. Made for jewelry purposes throughout the 19th and early 20th century, very likely outside Turkey: similar imitations are met in abundance in South Russia and Ukraine, along the shores of Black and Azov seas, where they were widely used for adorning Gypsy and native Greek women's garments.

So, as you see, it is not exactly a FAKE or a COUNTERFEIT - it is an IMITATION, so the makers could not get into trouble. The regnal years alone would show that the coin was not "real" -

An interesting piece that may turn up from time to time!
dpaul7

052a10. PostumusBillon antoninianus. 3.982g, 21.0mm, 0o, Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne, Germany) mint, c. 267 A.D.; obverse IMP C POSTVMVS P F AVG, radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right; reverse VBERTAS AVG (to the abundance of the Emperor), Uberitas standing facing, head left, right leg forward, purse in right hand, cornucopia in left hand.
RSC IV 366a, RIC V-2 330, Mairat 136, Schulzki AGK 94, Hunter IV 93, SRCV III 10995. A FORUM coin.lawrence c

1000 Réis1927 CE

Obverse: The figure of abundance, (Roman mythology) facing right, with right knee bent to the ground and holding a cornucopia. In the frontal field, the constellation of the Southern Cross. Surrounded by 21 stars above.

Reverse: Denomination (1000 reis) in wreath of two branches, one of coffee and the other of cotton, a star on the top and on the upper edge, the name BRAZIL. In the coin base the date.Pericles J2

1727. Leopold I: Reconstruction Of The Bridge In The Forest Of Haye. Obv: Leopold to right, in peruke, wearing armor and the Order of the Golden Fleece LEOPOLDVS. I. D.G. DVX. LOT. BAR. REX. IER
Rev: A traveling horseman going over bridge toward Abundance in countryside. In background landscape a herm of Mercury PROVIDENTIA. PRINCIPIS
Exergue: VIAE. MVNITAE MDCCXXVII Signed: SV.
AE64mm. Ref: Forrer V, p. 309, #6; Slg. Florange 171; Molinari 40/120; Europese Penningen # 1739

Leopold Joseph Charles (Leopold I) (1679-1729), Duke of Lorraine and Bar (1697), was the son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine and Bar. This medal commemorates further the many reconstruction projects that Leopold I, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, fostered during his reign, in this case, the reconstruction of the bridge in the forest of Haye. The reverse alludes to the fact that the bridge increased commerce (Mercury) in Lorraine and led to more abundance for its inhabitants.
A herm, referred to in this medal, is a statue consisting of the head of the Greek god Hermes mounded on a square stone post. Hermes is the god of commerce, invention, cunning and theft, who also serves as messenger and herald for the other gods.
LordBest

1781. Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette, Birth of the Dauphin.Obv. Conjoined busts of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette LUDOVICO XVI ET M ANT AUSTR FR ET NAV REGI ET REGINAE LUTETIA signed DUVIVIER.
Rev. King and Queen between a kneeling Paris, holding a shield, and Trade (Abundance), holding a cornucopia and Hermes’ staff. SOLEMNIA DELPHINI NATALITIA REGE ET REGINA URBEM INVISENTIBUS XXI. JANU. MDCCLXXXII signed DV.

Commemorates the birth of Louis-Joseph Xavier Francois, Dauphin of France from 1781 to his death in 1789.1 commentsLordBest

220 Trajan DeciusTrajan Decius, July 249 - First Half of June 251 A.D.

Silver antoninianus, SRCV III 9364, RIC IV 10b, RSC IV 2, VF, 4.268g, 22.5mm, 180o, Rome mint, 250 - 251 A.D.; obverse IMP C M Q TRAIANVS DECIVS AVG, radiate and cuirassed bust right, from behind; reverse ABVNDANTIA AVG, Abundantia standing right, emptying cornucopia held in both hands; scarce;

Abundantia, her Greek name is Euthenia, stands for abundance or plenty. Her attributes are heads of grain and the cornucopia. She can be seated or standing and is sometimes shown emptying a cornucopia.2 commentsRandygeki(h2)

253-268 AD - Gallienus - RIC V (sole reign) 157 - ABVNDANTIA AVGEmperor: Gallienus (r. 253-268 AD)
Date: 260-268 AD
Condition: aVF
Denomination: Antoninianus

Obverse: GALLIENVS AVG
Emperor Gallienus
Bust right; radiate

Reverse: ABVNDANTIA AVG
The Emperor provides abundance.
Abundantia standing right, emptying cornucopiae.
"B" in left field

Rome mint
RIC V Gallienus (sole reign) 157; VM 5
2.06g; 18.1mm; 180°Pep

54-68 AD - NERO AE sestertius - struck 66 ADobv: NERO CLAVD CAESAR AVG GER P M TR P IMP P P (laureate head right, aegis on bust)
rev: ANNONA AVGVSTI CERES / S.C. (Ceres seated left with grain-ears & torch, facing Annona standing right with cornucopiae; between them, ship's stern and modius set on altar.)
ref: RIC I 137, BMCRE 127, C.16 (8frcs)
mint: Rome
27.51gms, 34mm orichalcum
Rare

Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture, holds her usual attributes, grain and the torch with which she searches for her daughter, Proserpina, held captive in the Underworld for the winter months. Annona, the personification of the grain harvest,
holds a cornucopia, symbol of agricultural abundance; this is her first appearance on a coin. On the altar is a modius, a grain measure, and in the background a ship's stern, references to the transport of the grain.1 commentsberserker

AbundantiaObv:– IMP C PROBVS . P . F . AVG, Radiate, cuirassed bust right
Rev:– ABVNDANTIA AVG, Abundatia, standing right, empting cornucopiae
Minted in Lugdunum (IIII in exe.) Emission 4 Officina 4
Date Minted – Middle to End 277 A.D.
References: Cohen 1. Bastien 195 (54 examples). RIC 17 Bust type F (Common)

Abundantia stands for abundance or plenty. Her attributes are ears of corn (grain) and cornucopiae. She is sometimes (as here) shown emptying the cornucopiae and sometimes shown seated. Her Greek name is Euthenia 1 commentsmaridvnvm

AE Aes Rude - Before 300 BCECENTRAL ITALY (Rome?)
8th-3rd Century BCE
Aes Rude (221.1g; circa 60mm long)
Rough cast bronze; as made.

Reference: Vecchi, ICC 1; BMCRR (Aes Rude) 1-11; Thurlow-Vecchi p. 15. pl. 2.

Provenance: Ex Jencek Historical Enterprises, acquired privately 14 Feb 2011 from Frank Kovacs; ex David Hendin (acquired mid-1980's from Italo Vecchi).

The relative abundance of copper in Italy made bronze a natural means of exchange among the people of central Italy. The initial medium was rough lumps of unmarked bronze which, lacking any governmental imprimatur or denomination, were weighed for each transaction.
1 commentsCarausius

Cr 494/29 L. Livineius Regulus AR Denarius42 b.c.e. Rome
o: Head of praetor (?) L. Livineius Regulus right
r: Modius between two ears of corn; above, LIVINEIVS; in exergue, REGVLVS
Livineia 13. HCRI 178
4.00 gm 17.50 mm

As noted with Vibius (494/36), this moneyer is a bit of a non-entity himself, but had some elements of family accomplishments he was permitted to note. On this type, the modius presumably reflects an ancestor whose magistracy involved the grain supply, likely his father as Praetor.
(Some commentators suggest that it is self-advertisement of the moneyer's own future largess, but, frankly, that makes little sense, as it neither comports with the history behind other “corn dole” issues nor was the duty one that could be skipped by any official with the job. "If you elect me, I will do the job the other guy would do" is not the most compelling slogan. Handing out these coins in abundance from one's own stash would be more effective...)
I have to admit I still do not fully follow Crawford's reasons for using one master number for so many moneyers and issues. I understand their role, their "bosses", and Buttrey's article, but still unnecessarily complicated in my view.
This coin is nice, despite the marks, and is often found terribly poorly struck and quite worn. PMah

Egypt, Alexandria, Hadrian, Milne 844Hadrian, AD 117-138
struck AD 117-118
obv. AVT KAIC TRAIANOC ADRIANOC
Bust, draped, laureate, r.
rev. Euthenia, clad in the garment of Isis with the typical pectoral knot, wearing Uraeus crown
and grain(?) , leaning l., resting with l. arm on small sphinx, laying r., and holding in raised
r. hand grain-ears, poppies and lotus-flower(?)
in field LB (= year 2)
Milne 822; BMC -
VF, brown patina
From Forum Ancient Coins, thanks!

The portrait of Hadrian is unusual and reminds of Caligula(!). This often appears on Alexandrian coins where the typical Roman Imperial portraits are found some times later in the reign of the emperor.
Euthenia was the goddess or spirit (daimon) of prosperity, abundance and plenty. She appears to have been one of a group of four younger Graces, the others being her sisters Eukleia (Good Repute), Eupheme (Acclaim) and Philophrosyne (Welcome) (from www.theoi.com)
Jochen

Elagabalus (AD 218 - 222) AR Denarius - AbundantiaAncient Roman Empire
Silver Denarius of Emperor Varius 'Elagabalus' Antoninus.
Struck at the Rome Mint.

obv: IMP ANTONINUS PIUS AUG - Laureate bust of Emperor facing right, draped.

rev: ABUNDANTIA AUG - Abundantia standing facing left, emptying the contents of a cornucopia. Star in right field.

3.0 Grams, 21mm.
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*Notes: Large flan for an Elagabalus AR Denarius. Photos with U.S. Quarter (25 cents) for size comparison.
-----------------------------------rexesq

Elagabalus (AD 218 - 222) AR Denarius - Abundantia and AR Antoninianus 'Salus'-----------------------------

left:
Roman Empire
Silver Antoninianus of Emperor Elagabalus (218 - 222 AD).
Struck at the Rome Mint.

obv: IMP CAES M AUR ANTONINUS - Radiate bust right, draped and cuirassed.
rev: SALVS ANTONINI AUG - Salus standing facing right, holding snake, which she feeds from patera in other hand.

Weight: 5.20 Grams
Size: 23 mm - 24 mm

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right:
Ancient Roman Empire
Silver Denarius of Emperor Varius 'Elagabalus' Antoninus.
Struck at the Rome Mint.

obv: IMP ANTONINUS PIUS AUG - Laureate bust of Emperor facing right, draped.
rev: ABUNDANTIA AUG - Abundantia standing facing left, emptying the contents of a cornucopia. Star in right field.

Weight 3.0 Grams
Size: 21 mm
-----------------------------1 commentsrexesq

FORTUNA REDUX.AE sestertius. Rome, 211 AD. 28.05 gr. Laureate head right. P SEPTIMIVS GETA PIVS AVG BRIT. / Fortuna seated left on throne, holding rudder on globe and cornucopiae, wheel under seat. FORT RED TR P III COS II P P S C. BMCRE 40. RIC 168a.
Fortuna is the Roman Goddess of Luck, Fate, and Fortune. Usually depicted holding in one hand a cornucopia, or a horn of plenty, from which all good things flowed in abundance, representing her ability to bestow prosperity; in the other she generally has a ship's rudder, to indicate that She is the one who controls how lives and fates are steered. She could also be shown enthroned, with the same attributes of rudder and cornucopia, but with a small wheel built into the chair, representing the cycles of fate and the ups and downs of fortune.
Fortuna Redux, one of the many aspects of Fortuna, was in charge of bringing people home safely, primarily from wars—redux means "coming back" or "returning". She may be one of the later aspects of Fortuna, as the earliest mention of Her is of an altar dedicated by the Senate in 19 BCE for the safe return of the Emperor Augustus3 commentsbenito

G., Thrace, Odessos, Autonomous coinage, (270-250 B.C.),AMNG I/2, 2192, Mushmov 1530, AE 17, "God of Odessos"(derzelas), OΔHΣI, Thrace, Odessos, Autonomous coinage, (270-250 B.C.),AMNG I/2, 2192, Mushmov 1530, AE 17, "God of Odessos"(derzelas), OΔHΣI,
avers: Laureate head of Apollo right.
revers: AP (ΑΝΘΡ) monogram in left OΔHΣI below, "God of Odessos", radiate, reclining left, holding patera and cornucopiae, leaning arm on overturned urn.
" Bearded god with nude upper part of the body leaning l., looking frontal, r. hand (with vase?) on his knee, holding in his l. arm, which is resting on pillows, the cornucopiae; in field before him amphora with opening downwards, from which liquid in long stream is flowing; in central field monogram." from Pick, by Jochen.
exerg: AP/-//OΔHΣI, diameter: 16,5-17,5mm, weight: 3,81g, axes:0h,
mint: Odessos, Thrace, date: c.270-250 B.C., ref: AMNG I/2, 2192 (1 ex., London), Mushmov-1530 (???),
Q-001
"Derzelas (Darzalas) was a Dacian or Thracian chthonic god of abundance and the underworld, health and human spirit's vitality, probably related with gods such as Hades"
"Darzalas was the Great God of Hellenistic Odessos (modern Varna) and was frequently depicted on its coinage from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and portrayed in numerous terra cotta figurines, as well as in a rare 4th century BC lead one, found in the city. Darzalas was often depicted in himation, holding cornucopiae with altars by his side. There was a temple dedicated to him with a cult statue, and games (Darzaleia) were held in his honor every five years, possibly attended by Gordian III in 238 AD."quadrans

Gallienus AbundantiaGallienus
Reigned 253-268
Silvered Antoninianus
Rome Mint
RIC 346

O: GALLIENVS AVG, Radiate head right.

R: ABVNDANTIA AVG, Abundantia standing right emptying cornucopiae

Purchased from lostreasure86 on 5/3/15

Gallienus, RIC 157Obv: GALLIENVS AVG
Bust: Radiate head right
Rev: ABVNDANTIA AVG
Abundance standing right emptying cornucopia
Exe: "B" in field left
Date: 253-268 AD
Denom: AntoninianusBluefish

GALLIENVS AVG / ABVNDANTIA AVG antoninianus (close to 265-267 A.D.) Obv.: [GA]LLIENVS [AVG], head of Gallienus radiate right

Rev.: [A]BVNDANT[IA AVG], Abundantia, draped, standing right, emptying cornucopiae. Left field: B.

d irregular 16+ –18mm, 3.03g, die axis 1h (medal alignment), material: bronze/copper-based alloy supposedly with some silver.

Authority and portrait: Gallienus (joint reign 253-, sole reign 260-268). Mint: Rome.

AVG = Augustus. ABVNDANTIA AVG(usti)= the Abundance (plenty) of the Emperor. This allegorical divinity had neither temples nor altars erected to her honour, but she appears on many coins, medals and monuments. She figures as a handsome woman, clothed in the stola, holding a cornucopiae, the mouth of which she holds towards the ground, and lets the contents fall in seemingly careless profusion. In propaganda it serves to mark the liberality exercised by the Emperor towards his soldiers and subjects, in his distribution to them of portions of the Aerarium publicum, or public treasure. B in left field probably means officina 2.

RIC V-1 Rome 157; Goebl 573-574; Sear 10164.

ID is straightforward, Abundantia standing right emptying cornucopiae corresponds only to RIC Rome 157, usually with field mark B. There are usual variations (bust bare, cuirassed, draped or just head, in some rare cases left). Mintmark is usually left, but cases are mentioned of it being right or in exergue, sometimes it is missing. There are both smaller 17-19mm types, and larger, up to 23mm.Yurii P

GALLIENVS AVG / VBERITAS AVG antoninianus (close to 265-267 A.D.) Obv.: GALLIENVS AVG, radiate bare? bust of Gallienus right, one ribbon behind, one forward across shoulder

Rev.: VBERIT[AS AVG], Uberitas, pregnant, draped, standing left, holding marsupium (purse) (or bunch of grapes, or cow's udder) in right hand and cornucopiae in left hand. ϵ in right field.

d18mm, 1.50g, die axis 1h (medal alignment), material: bronze/copper-based alloy supposedly with some silver.

Authority and portrait: Gallienus (joint reign 253-, sole reign 260-268). Mint: Siscia, Pannonia.

AVG = Augustus. VBERITAS AVG(usti)= the Fertility of the Emperor. Uberitas or Ubertas is a Roman goddess (or allegorical figure, which in this period of Roman culture is difficult to distinguish) of fertility and profitability, introduced by emperor Decius in 249 A.D. Its attributes are the cornucopia (the Horn of Plenty, traditional Roman symbol of abundance) and another object, that she usually holds in her right hand and on coins it is depicted as a triangle. When we look at well preserved coins of Decius, who introduced Uberitas, e. g. in British museum (see link below), this object is clearly a marsupium, money purse. But later this object changes its shape, one can see three protrusions at the bottom of it. This is interpreted either as a bunch of grapes or a cow's udder, both also meaning plentiful bounty. Epsilon probably means officina 5.

RIC V-1 Siscia 585 var; Goebl 583a; RSC 1010c; Sear 10368.

ID notes: Uberitas with epsilon in the right field points directly to RIC V-1 Siscia 585 var. A similar type is RIC Rome 287, but for it obverse legend starts with IMP. It is interesting to note, that the triangular object (purse or whatever) seems very similar pileus, a triangular "freedom" cap, an attribute of another goddess, Libertas. Since her name is also similar, this might create problems when id-ing worn coins with incomplete legends.

Most examples have sizes below 20mm. There is the usual variation with regard to emperor's bust (bare, cuirassed etc.) or just head.Yurii P

GORDIAN III sestertius - 240 ADobv: IMP CAES GORDIANVS PIVS AVG (laureate, draped & cuirassed bust right)
rev: LIBERALITAS AVG II (Liberalitas standing left holding coin counter {tessera} & cornucopiae), S-C in ex. [RIC not describe the double cornucopiae]
ref: RIC269a, C.136
21.42gms, 30mm
In this coin the personification of Liberality stands holding up the tessera in her right hand, and two horns of abundance in her left hand [double cornucopiae], as designating a double gift made at that time; or as was usual to be done, a donative to the soldiery, a congiarium to the people.berserker

IMP CLAVDIVS AVG / VBERITAS AVG antoninianus (268-270 A.D.) Obv.: [IMP CLAV]DIVS AV[G], radiate cuirassed? bust of Claudius right, both ribbons behind?

Rev.: VBER[ITAS A]VG, Uberitas, pregnant, draped, standing left, holding marsupium (purse) (or bunch of grapes, or cow's udder) in right hand and cornucopiae in left hand.

d irregular 15-18mm, 2.15g, die axis 11h (medal alignment), material: bronze/copper-based alloy supposedly with some silver.

Authority and portrait: Claudius II Gothicus (reign 268-270). Mint: Siscia, Pannonia.

AVG = Augustus. VBERITAS AVG(usti)= the Fertility of the Emperor. Uberitas or Ubertas is a Roman goddess (or allegorical figure, which in this period of Roman culture is difficult to distinguish) of fertility and profitability, introduced by emperor Decius in 249 A.D. Its attributes are the cornucopia (the Horn of Plenty, traditional Roman symbol of abundance) and another object, that she usually holds in her right hand and on coins it is depicted as a triangle. When we look at well preserved coins of Decius, who introduced Uberitas, e. g. in British museum (see link below), this object is clearly a marsupium, money purse. But later this object changes its shape, one can see three protrusions at the bottom of it. This is interpreted either as a bunch of grapes or a cow's udder, both also meaning plentiful bounty. Epsilon probably means officina 5.

RIC V-1 Siscia 193; Cohen 286; Sear 11376.

ID straightforward if we believe that there are no field marks, which seems to be the case. If there were a right field mark X, this would have been type RIC V-1 Rome 103, with reverse legend VBERTAS AVG. Field marks Q and T are often encountered in Sisica type. Variation for obverse include bare or cuirassed bust and a slightly different legend: IMP C CLAVDIVS AVG. Most coins are 18-19mm, but there are some larger 21mm types.Yurii P

Islands off Attica, Aegina Transitional Issue Land Tortoise Islands off Attica, Aegina. Circa 456/45-431 BC. AR Stater 12.40g, 22mm
O: Land tortoise, head in profile, with segmented shell
R: Large square incuse with heavy skew pattern.

- Meadows, Aegina, Group IIIb; Milbank pl. II, 13; HGC 6, 437 var. (head not in profile); SNG Copenhagen 517 var. (same); Dewing 1683 var. (same); Gillet 948 var. (same); Jameson 1200 var. (same); Pozzi 1635 var. (same).

Struck on a broad flan. Very rare with head in profile.

The head of the land tortoise on this massive coinage is typically engraved shown from above, with the tortoise looking forward. Very rarely are they encountered with the head shown in profile. The profile head was canonical on the earlier, sea turtle coinage, thus the land tortoise coins of this variety may represent a short transitional issue at the beginning of this period.

The island of Aegina, about 25 miles southeast of Athens, is a rocky and mountainous outcrop, with limited arable land. Thus from an early period the sea had to serve as the livelihood for the inhabitants. The Aeginetans ranged far and wide over the Mediterranean, becoming exceptional merchants and carriers. In the early 6th century BC. they had a near monopoly on the transshipping of grain out from the Back Sea region to the Peloponnesos. Within fifty years they were holding significant grain concessions at the Egyptian port of Naukratis. During this heyday period the Aeginetans held an enviable reputation as general traders and transporters.
In their travels, the Aeginetan merchants encountered the early forms of money developing in Asia Minor. The concept was obviously seen as advantageous in terms of commerce and trade. Another incentive could very well be that proposed by Kraay, in Archaic and Classical Greek Coins: that the Aeginetans quickly realized that surplus wealth, which their commercial ventures were producing at the time, could also be stored indefinitely in the form of silver coin. And so the island began coining money sometime near the mid-6th century BC. Of thick, chunky fabric for the larger staters, all denominations bear the image of a sea turtle in high relief, with compartmented incuse on the reverse. The choice of turtle (chelones) no doubt alluded to their marine interests. Traditionally these are placed as being the first coins struck in Europe -- and nothing to date has emerged to challenge this view.
The coins of the earliest period, struck up to about 480 BC, are found in hoards of circulated coins dating well into the 4th century BC; this extreme length of use of the coin suggests a remarkable abundance, and thus evidence for a prolific output by her mint. Also, well-worn specimens have been found included among hoard coinage in such diverse spots as Egypt, Tarentum in southern Italy, at Persepolis in Iran, and as far east as Kabul, in Afghanistan. Interestingly, however, in hoards where the dominant coin is that of Aegina, the find spots suggest that her immediate monetary influence was more limited -- the area of the Cyclades islands and Crete was where the bulk of the island's monies were utilized.
Aside from silver and bullion accumulated in trade, Aegina's primary source of silver for her earliest coins seems to have been the mines on the island of Syphnos. Again, hoard evidence suggests how huge the output was for this early trade coin, and likewise indicates that these mines were at the peak of their production in the 6th century. After 480 BC, production of Aegina's "turtles" began decreasing over the next twenty years -- thus either mining activities on Syphnos declined seriously or ceased altogether.
Another hindering factor to the island's coinage during this period would be the rise and dominance of Athens as Mistress of the Aegean. Attic influence went beyond mere commerce, her empire-building included political meddling and the securing of resources. In fact, Athens conquered Aegina in 457 BC and stripped her of her maritime powers. This loss of Aegina's sea-borne livelihood may well have been the reason for the change of design on her coin's obverse. The sea turtle then became a land tortoise, as seen by the pronounced segmented pattern on the creature's shell-covered back. Athens again showed her might by expelling the Aeginetans from their island in 431 BC. It was only after the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC, with Athens' power broken, that the island's inhabitants returned home to resume their activities and their coinage. The final phase of the venerable "turtles" saw them become a reduced coinage, increasingly for local use only. The tortoise motif disappears some time during the 3rd century BC. And by the 2nd century BC, what had been Europe's first and most important precious metal trade coinage was now only small, inconsequential coppers.6 commentsNemonater

JUDAEA, Alexander Janneus, PrutahBronze Prutah,
Obverse: BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (King Alexander) around anchor.
Reverse: Eight ray star (or wheel) surrounded by diadem (solid circle, sometimes looks like a wagon wheel), Hebrew inscription “Yehonatan the king” between the rays.

The anchor on the obverse of this coin was adopted from the Seleucids, who used it to symbolize their naval strength. Anchors are depicted upside down, as they would be seen hung on the side of a boat ready for use.
The star on the reverse of the coin symbolizes heaven.

This coin is called “The Widow's Mite” (Mark 12:41-44)
"41 Now Jesus sat opposite the treasury and saw how the people put money into the treasury. And many who were rich put in much. 42 Then one poor widow came and threw in two mites, which make a quadrans. 43 So He called His disciples to Himself and said to them, "Assuredly, I say to you that this poor widow has put in more than all those who have given to the treasury; 44 for they all put in out of their abundance, but she out of her poverty put in all that she had, her whole livelihood."

Judean Kingdom, Alexander Jannaeus (Yehonatan), 103 - 76 B.C. (Widow's Mite)Bronze lepton, Hendin 472, Fair, Jerusalem, 1.065g, 14.1mm, 78 - 76 B.C.;
obverse - barbaric, blundered legend, BASILEWS ALEXANDROU, anchor upside-down, as if hanging on the side of a boat, inside circle;
reverse - barbaric blundered Aramaic inscription, King Alexander Year 25, star of eight rays surrounded by circle of dots;

Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."b70

MAFJa1 SeparationFaustina II

As

Draped bust, left, FAVSTINA AVG PII AVG FIL
Juno seated left holding the three graces and scepter, peacock at feet, IVNO SC

The reverse is RIC 1400, for which only right-facing busts are listed.

Faustina was to spend years apart from her husband and probably traumatized as a mother shortly before his departure. The Historia Augusta records, "When about the set off for the German war. . . [Marcus] gave his daughter [Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina] to [Gnaeus] Claudius [Severus, a Roman Senator from Pompeiopolis], a [man] of advanced age, son of a Roman knight and not of sufficiently noble family (subsequently [Marcus] made him Consul twice)--since his daughter was an Augusta and the daughter of an Augusta. But both Faustina and the girl who was being given in marriage regarded this wedding with reluctance. . . . Just before the day of his actual departure, [Marcus] lost his seven-year-old son, Verus Caesar by name, after an operation on a tumor under the ear. He mourned him for no more than five days, and after comforting the doctors returned to the affairs of state." How long, one wonders, did Faustina mourn?

According to the Historia Augusta, which at many points tends toward salacious gossip, "it is reasonably well known that Faustina chose both sailors and gladiators as paramours for herself at Caieta [where the couple spent several years after their marriage]. When Marcus was told about her, so that he might divorce her--if not execute her--he is reported to have said, "If we send our wife away, we must give back her dowry, too--and what dowry did he have but the empire. . . ?" During the German war, the text alleges, Faustina took pantomimists as lovers.

Whether or not the rumors had any basis in fact, Marcus thought highly of his wife and family situation. In his first meditation, he thanks the gods that "I have such a wife, so obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple; that I had abundance of good masters for my children." Perhaps the word from the horse's mouth is a better source than a history written more than a century later.

At some point, Marcus apparently saw the light, and Faustina joined him at the frontier. The Historia Augusta relates, "He had her with him even in the campaigning season, and [after her death] for this reason he gave her the title 'Mother of the Camp.'"Blindado

Moesia superior, Viminacium, Gordian III AMNG 90Gordian III, AD 238-244
AE 21, 6.16g
struck AD 242/3 (year 4)
obv. [IMP GORDIA]NVS PIVS FEL AVG
Bust, draped and cuirassed, radiate, r.
rev. PMS C - OL VIM
Moesia, in long garment, std. frontal, head l., holding in lowered r. hand hare
on hind legs and vexillum without legion number in l. hand.
in ex. AN IIII (year 4)
AMNG I/1, 90; Hristova/Jekov Kat.No.18; Varbanov (engl.) 100
F/about VF

Pick writes: Wether the hare is a symbol of the abundance of hares in Moesia or an allusion to a beaten enemy remains to be seen.
1 commentsJochen

RIC 0392 VespasianÆ Dupondius, 12.05g
Rome mint, 72-73 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG COS IIII; Head of Vespasian, radiate, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 392 (R2). BMC -. BNC Spec. acquired 2004 (178).
Acquired from London Ancient Coins, November 2021.

After the massive bronze issues of 71, the Rome mint scaled back production considerably in 72. This extremely rare Felcitias dupondius was struck in 72-73 just prior to Vespasian's joint censorship with Titus. Despite its fleeting nature early on, Felicitas later became one of the commonest bronze reverse types of the reign. Here she symbolises the prosperity and abundance Vespasian has brought to the empire.
David Atherton

RIC 0444 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ As, 10.20g
Rome mint, 72 AD
Obv: T CAES VESPASIAN IMP P TR P COS II; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: FIDES PVBLICA; S C below; Hands clasped over caduceus and corn ears
RIC 444 (R). BMC 642. BNC 632.
Acquired from Gert Boersema, April 2019.

The clasped hands type had been introduced during Vespasian's great bronze issues of 71. It perhaps symbolises good faith in the corn supply (corn ears), trade (caduceus), and agricultural abundance. From the moment coins were issued in Titus Caesar's name in 72 he shared many of the reverses struck for his father, such as this clasped hands type. It must have contained a very important message for the regime since it was also produced in silver.

A fine early style portrait of the young prince with a dark greenish-grey patina.7 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0482 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 12.09g
Rome mint, 72 AD
Obv: T CAESAR VESPASIAN IMP III PON TR POT II COS II: Head of Titus, radiate, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas standing l., holding caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 582 (R2). BMC -. BNC -.
Acquired from Forvm Ancient Coins, October 2022.

All the bronze coinage of Titus Caesar's fourth issue dated IMP III PON TR POT II COS II of 72 are quite rare. This Felicitas variety is cited by RIC in only the Rome and Belgrade collections. Despite its fleeting nature early on, Felicitas later became one of the commonest bronze reverse types of the reign. Here she symbolises the prosperity and abundance Vespasian has brought to the empire.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0581 VespasianÆ Dupondius, 12.53g
Rome mint, 73 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESP AVG P M T P COS IIII CENS; Head of Vespasian, radiate, l.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 581 (C). BMC 661. BNC 652.
Acquired from CGB.fr, June 2022.

In 73 Vespasian and Titus Caesar held a joint censorship which was duly recorded on the coinage. The Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance Vespasian has brought to the empire after a period of turmoil. It is easily one of the commonest reverse types struck for the dupondius issues during Vespasian's reign. 1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0615 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 9.66g
Rome mint, 73 AD
Obv: T CAESAR IMP COS II CENS; Head of Titus, radiate, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 615 (R). BMC -. BNC 674.
Acquired from eBay, October 2019. Formerly in NGC holder 5767629-014, with grade 'VF'.

A rare variant of the common Felicitas reverse with a unique obverse legend struck for this one type in this one issue. A die pair match with the BNC plate coin. Missing from the BM's extensive collection.

Felicitas symbolising prosperity and abundance was one of the more common types struck during Vespasian's reign, often shared with Titus Caesar.

Strong early style portrait.3 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0658 Domitian as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 11.09g
Rome mint, 73-74 AD
Obv: CAESAR AVG F DOMITIAN COS II; Bust of Domitian, laureate, draped, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 658 (C). BMC p. 157 note *. BNC 693.
Acquired from CGB.fr, September 2020.

A most stylish dupondius struck for Domitian Caesar in either 73 or 74 from one of his earliest bronze issues at Rome. The dupondii from this issue are laureate instead of radiate and can be differentiated from the asses by the draped busts and metal content (yellowish orichalcum). The Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance the Flavian dynasty has brought to the empire. It is certainly one of the most abundant reverse types of Vespasian's reign. Surprisingly, this common Domitian Caesar Felicitas is missing from the BM's extensive collection.

The engraver who worked on the obverse had talent to spare and rendered a wonderful portrait in fine style.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0715 VespasianÆ Dupondius, 10.55g
Rome mint, 74 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESP AVG P M T P COS V CENS; Head of Vespasian, radiate, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 715 (C2). BMC 696. BNC 712.
Acquired from Aegean Numismatics, August 2018.

A decently sized bronze coinage was struck for Vespasian in 74. The Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance Vespasian has brought to the empire. It is easily one of the commonest reverse types of the issue.

Well centred with a few marks on the reverse.
5 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0716 VespasianÆ Dupondius, 12.85g
Rome mint, 74 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESP AVG P M TP COS V CENS; Head of Vespasian, radiate, l.
Obv: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 716 (C2). BMC 698. BNC 714.
Acquired from London Ancient Coins, May 2021.

Felicitas was by far the most common type struck on the dupondius during Vespasian's reign. Here she symbolises the abundance and prosperity the emperor has brought to the empire.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0742 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 13.58g
Rome mint, 74 AD
Obv: T CAESAR IMP COS III CENS; Head of Titus, radiate, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 742 (C). BMC 707. BNC 729.
Acquired from AE-Collections, May 2023.

Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance the Flavian dynasty has brought to the empire. The type was struck for all three Flavians under Vespasian and is certainly one of the more abundant reverse types of the reign.David Atherton

RIC 0830 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 13.68g
Rome mint, 75 AD
Obv: T CAESAR IMP COS IIII; Head of Titus, radiate, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 830 (C). BMC 715A. BNC 741.
Acquired from London Ancient Coins, January 2021.

Felicitas symbolising prosperity and abundance was one of the more common types struck during Vespasian's reign, often shared with Titus Caesar. This common dupondius was struck in 75, the year of the Temple of Peace dedication.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0887 VespasianÆ Dupondius, 13.87g
Rome mint, 76 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESP AVG P M T P COS VII; Head of Vespasian, radiate, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 887 (C). BMC 723. BNC 752.
Acquired from London Ancient Coins, January 2021.

Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance Vespasian has brought to the empire. Along with Pax, it is easily one of the commonest reverse types of his reign.

Fantastic portrait in fine style.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0909 Titus as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 11.37g
Rome mint, 76 AD
Obv: T CAESAR IMP COS V; Head of Titus, radiate, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 909 (R). BMC -. BNC 761.
Ex eBay, 27 May 2021. Ex CNG Triton X, 7 January 2007, lot 1565 (part). Ex Henry Chitwood Collection.

This Felicitas reverse was one of the most common types on the middle bronze of Vespasian's reign. Struck for all the three Flavians, it symbolises the abundance and prosperity the Flavian house has brought to the empire. This Titus Caesar dupondius was produced at a time when Vespasian's bronze production was winding down at Rome. Missing from the BM's collection.2 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0928 Domitian as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ Dupondius, 13.42g
Rome mint, 76-77 AD
Obv: CAESAR AVG F DOMITIAN COS IV; Bust of Domitian, laureate, draped, bearded, r.
Rev: FELICITAS PVBLICA; S C in field; Felicitas stg. l., with caduceus and cornucopiae
RIC 928 (R2). BMC -. BNC -.
Acquired from Aegean, January 2024. Ex Ephesus Numismatics.

Domitian as Caesar's dupondii under Vespasian are typically laureate instead of radiate and can be differentiated from the asses by the draped busts and metal content (yellowish orichalcum). The Felicitas on the reverse symbolises the prosperity and abundance the Flavian dynasty has brought to the empire. This rare variety with the COS date rendered as 'IV' instead of the much more commonly seen 'IIII' is missing from both the BM and Paris collections. RIC cites only 2 examples - one from a 1980 Lanz sale, the other from a private collection. An obverse die match with the RIC plate coin.2 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 0980 Vespasian (3)AR Denarius, 2.92g
Rome mint, 77-78 AD
Obv: CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG; Head of Vespasian, laureate, right.
Rev: IMP XIX across field; Modius, standing on three legs, containing one ear of corn upright, then two ears of corn bending r. and l. with poppy in between and two ears of corn hanging over the sides
RIC 980 (C). BMC 217. RSC 219. BNC 191.
Acquired from Münzen & Medaillen, July 2018. 'From an old Swiss collection'.

A rare variant of the modius type with poppies in between the corn ears. The BNC notes this variant (BNC 191). The variants with poppies tend to have longer corn ears than the common examples without them. The poppy in the Roman world was often a symbol of abundance and fertility, so it is quite fitting to see them symbolically stored in a modius alongside corn ears. NB: BMC 217 has the poppies on either side of the upright corn ear.

Well centred on a ragged flan.3 commentsDavid Atherton

RIC 1416 VespasianAR Denarius, 2.90g
Ephesus Mint, 70 AD
Obv: IMP CAESAR VESPAS AVG COS II TR P P P; Head of Vespasian, laureate, r.
Rev: CONCORDIA AVG; Ceres, Veiled, draped, seated l. holding two corn-ears and poppy in r. hand and cornucopiae in l.; in exergue, BY
RIC 1416 (R2). BMC p. 93. RSC 66a. RPC 823 (1 spec.). BNC -.
Ex Old Roman Coins, eBay, June 2004.

This denarius has a mint mark that the BMCRE attributes to Byzantium, however, modern scholarship is inclined to assign this mark and the other mint marked denarii of Asia Minor to the city of Ephesus.

The reverse type depicts Ceres seated on a throne holding the abundance of harvest. Issued soon after the Civil War, it may be a local expression of the 'fruits of harmony.' (BMCRE lxvi)

A coin which suffers from a touch of porosity due to it's state of preservation. Like many of the coins of Asian Minor, the artistic quality is very high.
David Atherton

ROMAN EMPIRE, Trajan Denarius - Abundantia (RIC II 11)AR Denarius
Rome 98-100 AD
3.26g

Obv: Laureate bust of Trajan (R) in style of Nerva.
IMP CAES NERVA TRAIAN AUG GERM

Rev: ABUNDANTIA (Abundance) seated (L) holding sceptre on chair made of crossed cornucopiae.
PONT MAX TR POT COS II

RIC II 11 RSC 301Optimo Principi

RPC 1623 Domitian as Caesar [Vespasian]Æ22 5.41g
Ancyra (Galatia-Cappadocia) mint, undated
Obv: ΑΥΤΟ ΔΟΜΙΤΙΑ ΚΑΙΣΑΡ ΣΕΒΑΣ ΥΙΟΣ; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗΝΩΝ ΤΕΚΤΟΣΑΓΩΝ; Three corn-ears in bundle
RPC 1623 (3 spec.).
Acquired from Praefectus Coins, January 2022.

Late in Vespasian's reign, and possibly extending into the first few months of Titus's, Ancyra struck a small issue of brass coins for all three Flavians. Domitian Caesar shows up on the smaller denomination paired with a stylish three grain ears reverse. The symbolism behind the design possibly is just a simple allusion to abundance and prosperity. The portrait itself is quite fine. Interestingly, the same engraver's handiwork can be detected in neighbouring Tavium's issues.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RPC 1656 Domitian as Caesar [Vespasian]AR Drachm, 2.94g
Caesarea (Cappadocia) mint, 76-77 AD
Obv: ΔΟΜΙΤΙΑΝΟϹ ΚΑΙϹΑΡ ϹƐΒΑϹΤΟΥ ΥΙΟϹ; Head of Domitian, laureate, r.
Rev: ƐΥΘΗΝΙΑ ϹƐΒΑϹΤΗ ƐΤ Θ; Eutheria/Abundantia std., r., holding two corn-ears in r. hand
RPC 1656 (3 spec.).
Acquired from David Connors, June 2023

Vespasian's Cappadocian silver issues were struck in two distinct styles: Roman (six o'clock die axis) and 'local' (twelve o'clock die axis). Unsurprisingly, the Roman style coins were struck at Rome and sent to Cappadocia to help supplement the locally produced pieces. The majority of Cappadocia's silver coins were struck locally, very likely in Caesarea. Whether 'Roman' or 'local', all Cappadocian silver was produced at nearly 50% fineness. This rare drachm struck for Domitian Caesar in 'local' style features Eutheria the goddess or personified spirit (daimona) of prosperity and abundance.1 commentsDavid Atherton

RPC 2435 VespasianÆ Obol, 3.78g
Alexandria mint, 71-72 AD
Obv: ΑΥΤΟΚ ΚΑΙΣ ΣΕΒΑ ΟΥΕΣΠΑΣΙΑΝΟΥ; Head of Vespasian, laureate, r.
Rev: LΔ; Canopus, r.
RPC 2435 (11 spec.). Emmett 219.4. Dattari-Savio 371.
Acquired from Lodge Antiquities, January 2021.

This Alexandrian ethnic type features an Osiris-Canopus jar on the reverse. Osiris here is depicted as a jar with a human head. The lid is the head of Osiris with his hair coiffed in an Egyptian style called the klaft. He is wearing a crown and the protective uraeus, or sacred cobra. His body is a Canopic jar, a vessel which held the internal organs of the deceased for the afterlife. These jars were carried by priests to symbolically transport the Nile's sacred waters during processions. The jar may possibly symbolise the abundance brought by the waters. This fertility type began showing up on the coinage in the First Century. The regnal year four issue is the most common date for this reverse under Vespasian.1 commentsDavid Atherton

SALONINA AVG / FECVNDITAS AVG antoninianus (close to 265-267 A.D.) Obv.: [SALONIN]A AVG, Bust of Salonina, diademed, draped, right, on crescent.

Rev.: [F]ECVNDITAS [AVG], Fecunditas, draped, standing left, with right hand reaching down to child at her feet left, holding cornucopiae in left hand. Right field: Î”

d oval 16-18- mm, 1.94g, die axis 7h (coin alignment), material: bronze/copper-based alloy supposedly with some silver.

Portrait: Cornelia Salonina (Augusta in 253-268), wife of Gallienus
Authority: Gallienus (joint reign 253-, sole reign 260-268).
Mint: Rome.

AVG = Augusta. FECVNDITAS AVG(ustae) = Fecundity of Augusta. Fecundity is the ability to produce an abundance of offspring or new growth, it is simply a different name of fertility. Feritility was an important concept in Roman religion and culture, as least two religious festivals, Lupercalia in February and Paliria in April had fertility as their major themes. But later Fecundity itself, possibly as an aspect of Juno, became a goddess. Nero erected a temple to Fecundity, on the occasion of a daughter being borne to him by Poppaea (Tacit xv 23). And the adoration of this divinity, once established at Rome, became a frequent subject of allusion and typification on the coins of succeeding empresses, as one of the most relevant goddesses (and qualities) for Roman matrons. As in this case, she typically appears with the horn of plenty and a child or children, with obvious connotations. Delta in the right field probably means officina 4.

RIC V-1 Rome 5; Göbl 662s; Sear 10633.

ID straightforward. The mark can appear in left or right field or in exergue. In some cases it is epsilon, designating the fifth officina that probably made these from time to time. Mark A mentioned is some cases if probably a usual misreading of delta. The most significant variation, with possible relevance in this case, since the start of obverse legend is lost, is obverse legend COR SALONINA AVG or CORNEL SALONINA AVG. The size is consistently in the range 18-21mm with only a few smaller and larger exceptions. Note that as often with Rome mint some letters are made of separate lines and thus sometimes V = II, N = Î›I or III, M = IIII etc.Yurii P

Spain- Taragona- AmphitheatreThis conventional seating may be observed at the amphitheatre at Tarragona in northern Spain. Tarraco, its Latin name, was the capital of the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. The seating is essentially the same as that found in Rome’s Colosseum. The amphitheatre’s construction is dated to the second century AD, a time of extensive building of centres of public entertainment throughout the Mediterranean. On the right side, the seating was hewn from the bedrock, while on the left, or seaward side, the seating was built up from blocks, a phenomenon also found at Syracuse in Sicily.

However, in a recent visit to Pompeii some interesting divergence from the norm is easily to be observed, for which no reason appears to have been voiced. The town of Pompeii, destroyed in the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79, had a population in excess of 10,000, and was clearly a place of sufficient wealth to

sport not only an amphitheatre seating 20,000, but also a traditional Greek theatre and a smaller building called the Odeon. The "large" theatre, as it is now called, can seat an audience of 5,000, the "small" theatre, which was roofed, had accommodation for 500. Seating was according to rank, it is supposed, two side boxes (rather like the royal boxes of later theatres) for honoured guests, an inner cavea for the decurions or magistrates of the town, the middle rows for the more wealthy members of the community, the upper tiers for the ordinary citizens. If one looks closely it is clearly noticeable that this inner cavea consists of the first four or five rows of benches.

It is clear that, unlike the earlier form of the Greek theatres, the front rows are considerably wider than those higher up in the auditorium. The size of the seating is far beyond the dimensions of even a large and well-endowed personage, extending inwards for a good metre or more. The reasons for the additional size are unclear, because the larger width does not make these benches any more comfortable for the sitter, if anything they provide less support than the more narrow benches above. Presumably, the spectators brought cushions with them for lengthy performances in much the same way as fans for rugby or cricket matches do today. One solution may be that the wider seating allowed the dignatory to relax by reclining as if at dinner though this can hardly have been a posture acceptable for a quasi-religious festival nor one which would have endeared these wealthy members of the community to their less well-endowed fellows higher up, even if conspicuous consumption was the order of the day, particularly during the Roman empire.

In the "large" theatre the first four rows, in the "small" theatre and in the amphitheatre the first five rows stand out from the rest and, in fact, have their special place denoted by a partition. In some of the theatres in Greece, the officials judging the competitions, which were part and parcel of the festivals, and high ranking citizens might occupy a special bench, or the first row of the auditorium, but the broad nature of the bench at Pompeii appears unique. Pompeii began as a Oscan settlement in the 8th century BC and was heavily Hellenised by the 6th century. Thereafter, Pompeii had a fairly chequered history, being conquered and lost by the Etruscans and Samnites, before becoming a Roman colony in 80 BC. The Samnites of the central hills and the more local Oscan speakers, an Italic dialect which survived down to the period of the empire, remained culturally and linguistically influential, and it is possible that the Greek practice of uniformity in seating was altered by these Italic tribes who, at times, controlled Pompeii. On the other hand, there could be direct Roman or even Etruscan influence, though this formalised partitioning of seating is not seen in any of the archeaological sites in Rome or in nearby Campania, for example at Puteoli or at Capua. Finally, as for what purpose the large widths were intended, without clear evidence, and certainly with no ancient mention, means that speculation takes over. It could be that wooden seats rather like thrones were brought in, even sedan chairs for the high and mighty of the town, though it is worth bearing in mind that high-backed chairs easily obscured the views of those scarcely less wealthy immediately behind. The Roman males, it will be remembered, tended to lounge on low couches when they ate, rather than sitting in upright seats, which became popular only in the later Byzantine period. It also seems likely that, given the amount of space, it was not just the men who were seated here but entire families - perhaps picnic baskets as well. Refreshments were provided during performances, but the wealthy possibly brought their own equivalents of the modern cool bags and six-packs. The illustrations of the three places of entertainment at Pompeii do not appear to suggest that these special seating are the product of modern reconstructions, some of which have proved disastrous to ancient sites; and, therefore, there seems to be no alternative to accepting at least the idea that preferential seating was the order of the day in this rather provincial town on the Bay of Naples. Etruscan tombs often show their owners in a reclining position as if at a meal, and other forms of entertainment also feature which, overall, might suggest an influence here from north of the River Tiber.

Having dwelt at length, as it were, with the bottoms and the bottom-most seats of the ancient theatres and amphitheatres I now want to move on to the general ambience of the structure. The Roman amphitheatre or hippodrome were dirty smelly places where, by the end of the day’s proceedings, the stench from the dead and dying must have made an abatoir a sweet-smelling location. It is recorded that sprinkler systems were used in the Colosseum to spray the audience and the arena floor with scented water to alleviate the foulness of the atmosphere. By way of contrast, the Greek theatre must have been a place of peace and serenity, except for sore buttocks and aching backs.

Many commentators of the ancient theatre have sadly noted that the early pristine form, as found today at Epidaurus and Segesta, generally underwent alterations during the Roman period. It is noted that the slightly more than a semi-circular design was largely filled in during later antiquity by the Roman scena; and today many examples of the traditional Greek theatres sport Roman brickwork at the front which reached the same height, in some cases, as the uppermost tier of the cavea or auditorium. This height also allowed for a velabrum or canvass cover to be used to provide shade or shelter from the elements. At Taormina, ancient Tauromenium, for example:

"The brick scenic wall was preceded by a row of nine granite columns crowned by Corinthian capitals, which had both a decorative and bearing function, in that they supported the higher parts of the stage. The niches in the wall contained marble statues. On the sides, there are remains of the ‘parascenia’, square rooms used by actors and for scenic fittings. The actors entered the stage through side openings. A further row of sixteen columns closer to the orchestra framed the decorative front of the stage."

This is quite a departure from the earlier simplicity of the Greek theatre. However, it is certainly arguable that Baroque is not necessarily less pleasing than Romanesque even if blocking out the natural view also took the theatre out of its topographical or geographical context. For the purists among us, more sacrilege occurred, for instance, again at Taormina, where the first nine rows of the seating were removed making the orchestra large enough for gladiatorial combats and beast hunts, while at the same time allowing the audience safety high above the blood sports taking place below them. Of course, the construction of a front wall can easily be accounted for by the changing tastes in the entertainment itself, while the local audience presumably knew the view pretty well, and did not come to the theatre to gaze at Mount Etna. Furthermore, Taormina, high up on a hill overlooking the sea, had no extra space on which to build a new amphitheatre, more regularly the venue for gladiatorial combats. And it is also quite possible that there were simply insufficient funds. Taormina was neither a large nor a wealthy city.

Meanwhile, at Delphi the scena was "low so that the audience could enjoy the wonderful view", says one expert. Nonetheless, while the modern tourist may find the view as gratifying if not more so than the ruined theatre, the ancient audience came too see and hear the performances in honour of the Pythian Apollo. The ancient Greeks did not come for the view, they came for theatrical, religious even mystic experience. It is the modern philistine in us who enjoys the view. That being the case, the construction of the ancient theatre had little to do with searching for a site with a nice aspect, though these obviously exist, even in abundance, but for acoustic perfection and adequate accommodation. Finally, the best seats were closest to the stage and its proceedings, while the worst seats, for looking at the productions, had the best views. Does this mean that the most wealthy, with the largest bottoms, were obliged to watch the entertainment with no chance of letting the mind wander to the natural surroundings? Or does it mean that the women, slaves and poorest citizens, who sat high above the productions, probably could not hear or see what was going on hence took in the nice view instead. Therein lies the morality tale embedded in the title of this paper. If you had the means you were forced to take in the culture. If you were female or poor you could let your mind wander to other matters, including wonderful views of nature.
Peter Wissing

Thrace, Apollonia PonticaApollonia Pontica was founded by Miletos towards the end of the seventh century. Strabo says the greater part of the city occupied an offshore island, which must have been the present Sveti Kyrikos, but it extended over the Sozopol peninusla and Greeks also settled on the Atiya peninsula, a few kilometres to the north. The site was evidently chosen for its two excellent harbours - the city's emblem on coins was an anchor and a prawn - rather than trade. Its immediate hinterland was rugged and had no easy routes to the interior. The growing seaborne traffic plying the western Black Sea coast had shown the need for a port of call for revictualling and repairs between the Bosphoran harbours and such wealthy trading colonies as Histria and Olbia, established some half a century ealier further north." R F Hoddinott, Bulgaria in Antiquity, p 33

Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites Apollonia del Ponto: Two large gates and an island are known where the celebrated Sanctuary of Apollo and the major part of the ancient city were situated. A Greek inscription records the reconstruction of the ruined city and of the famous sanctuary by a Thracian tribe. The Imperial coins continue to use the name Apollonia until the 3d c. A.D., when the name Sozopol appears. During the Byzantine Empire Sozopol was the seat of a bishop, a rich and prosperous city that was frequented by the Genoese until it fell under Turkish domination in 1383. Today it is a modest town. Nothing of the ancient city remains visible above ground. Early excavations furnished little clarification. It is certainly on the island of St. Ciriaco where the stele of Anaxandros was found that the Temple of Apollo must be sought since all the material found in 1904, including a series of terracotta figurines datable to the 6th c. B.C., is connected with that cult; on the island of St. George there are traces of Byzantine construction. Both older and more recent excavations at Kalfata and the port of Giardino brought to light rich Greek necropoleis containing painted funerary vases dating between the 5th and the 2d c. B.C. The promontory is called Cape Kolokuntas (pumpkins) because of the great number of tumuli in the area. They are scattered over the upland and contain dromoi and funerary chambers, as was the Thracian custom. There are also cultural blendings as in the tumulus of Mapes, with dromoi and painted sarcophagi, where the Greek influence dominates.

Xenophon 7, 5 describes the Salmydessian coast between Apollonia and the Bosphorus:

...they [Xenophon and his troops] continued the march with Seuthes, and, keeping the Pontus upon the right through the country of the millet-eating Thracians, as they are called, arrived at Salmydessus. Here many vessels sailing to the Pontus run aground and are wrecked; for there are shoals that extend far and wide. [7.5.13] And the Thracians who dwell on this coast have boundary stones set up and each group of them plunder the ships that are wrecked within their own limits; but in earlier days, before they fixed the boundaries, it was said that in the course of their plundering many of them used to be killed by one another. [7.5.14] Here there were found great numbers of beds and boxes, quantities of written books, and an abundance of all the other articles that shipowners carry in wooden chests.

Apollonia Pontica, 450 - 400 BC. Silver Drachm. Anchor. / Gorgoneian facing with wild hair and a protruding tongure. VF ecoli

Trajan AsTrajan As
Æ As.
Obv: IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS V P P, laureate bust right
Rev: S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI S-C, Abundance standing left holding ears of corn & cornucopiae, child at feet, ALIM ITAL in ex.
RIC 459

Tanit

Trajan Decius Antoninianus AbundanceOb. IMP C M Q TRAIANVS DECIVS AVG, radiate cuirassed bust right
Rev. ABVNDANTIA AVG, Abundance standing right, spilling forth contents of a cornucopia.

Ref. RIC 10b

-:Bacchus:- Bacchus

TRAJAN DECIUS AR antoninianus - 249-250 ADobv: IMP.C.M.Q.TRAIANUS.DECIVS.AVG (radiate cuirassed bust right)
rev: ABVNDANTIA AVG (Abundance standing right, spilling forth contents of a cornucopia)
ref: RIC IViii 10b, C.2
mint: Rome
Scarceberserker

Trajan RIC II 428Obv: IMP CAES NERVA TRAIAN AVG GERM P M
radiate head right
Rev: TR POT COS IIII P P
Abundance seated left on chair of cornuacopiae, holding sceptre
SC in ex.
28mm 12.4gmOWL365

UberitasClaudius II Gothicus 268 - 270
AR - Antoninian, 2.78g, 19mm
Siscia 1. officina
obv. IMP CLAVDIVS AVG
cuirassed bust, radiate head r.
rev. VBER[IT]AS AVG
Uberitas standing l., holding cornucopiae and purse
RIC V, 193; C.286
good F, portrait!
UBERITAS, personification of richness and abundance,
go on from the idea of fertility goddesses. Introduced AD 249
by Decius. The object in her r. hand is interpreted as
1 purse,
2 bundle of grapes, or
3 udder of a cowJochen

Vespasian, 1 July 69 - 24 June 79 A.D. Rome mintOrichalcum sestertius, RIC II 460, (BMCRE II 574), weight 23.556g, max. diameter 32.1mm, 180o, Rome mint, 71 A.D.; obverse IMP CAES VESPAS AVG P M TR P P P COS III, laureate head right; reverse SALVS AVGVSTA S C, Salus seated left, patera in extended right, long scepter vertical behind in left. Thin brown patina worn on high points.

Background info courtsey Forvm Ancient Coins

In 71 A.D., the year this coin was struck, Vespasian and his sons celebrated the vanquishing of the Jews with a triumph in Rome. The Jewish historian Josephus was present at the festivities and noted, "It is impossible to do justice in the description of the number of things to be seen and to the magnificence of everything that met the eye...The greatest amazement was caused by the floats. Their size gave grounds for alarm about their stability, for many were three or four stories high...On one float the army could be seen pouring inside the walls, on another was a place running with blood. Others showed defenseless men raising their hands in entreaty, firebrands being hurled at temples or buildings falling on their owners. On yet others were depicted rivers, which, after the destruction and desolation, flowed no longer through tilled fields providing water for men and cattle, but through a land on fire from end to end. It was to such miseries that the Jews doomed themselves by the war...Standing on his individual float was the commander of each of the captured cities showing the way he had been taken prisoner...Spoil in abundance was carried past. None of it compared with that taken from the Temple in Jerusalem...The procession was completed by Vespasian, and, behind him, Titus. Domitian rode on horseback wearing a beautiful uniform and on a mount that was wonderfully well worth seeing...

Ex Forvm Ancient Coins

3 commentsSteve E

Widow's Mite LeptonJesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."b70

Widow's Mite Lepton, Judean Kingdom, Alexander Jannaeus, 103 -76 B.C.Bronze lepton, Hendin 471 or 472, Jerusalem mint, 95 - 76 B.C.; obverse BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), around anchor; reverse eight ray star surrounded by diadem (or wheel), Hebrew inscription "Yehonatan the king" between rays

Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."b70

[18H469] Bronze prutah3925. Bronze prutah, Hendin 469, TJC K, F, Jerusalem mint, 2.70g, 16.3mm, 95 - 76 B.C.; obverse BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), around anchor; reverse eight ray star surrounded by diadem (or wheel), Hebrew inscription "Yehonatan the king" between rays.

Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."Cleisthenes

[18H470] Judean Kingdom, Alexander Jannaeus (Yehonatan), 103 - 76 B.C.Judean Kingdom, Alexander Jannaeus (Yehonatan), 103 - 76 B.C. Bronze prutah, Hendin 470, F, Jerusalem, 1.72g, 14.8mm, 95 - 76 B.C. Obverse: BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), around anchor; Reverse: star with eight pellets instead of rays (no inscription between) surrounded by diadem; reverse 1/2 off center.

"And now the king's wife loosed the king's brethren, and made Alexander king, who appeared both elder in age, and more moderate in his temper than the rest" (Josephus, Wars, I, IV:1).

Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."Cleisthenes

[18H471] Judean Kingdom, Alexander Jannaeus (Yehonatan), 103 - 76 B.C.Bronze lepton, Hendin 471, .722g, 13.6mm, Jerusalem mint, 78 - 76 B.C.; obverse BASILEWS ALEXANDROU (of King Alexander), anchor upside-down inside circle, L KE (= year 25) near anchor points; reverse Aramaic inscription, King Alexander Year 25, star of eight rays surrounded by diadem of dots.

Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. Many rich people threw in large amounts. But a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. Calling his disciples to him, Jesus said, "I tell you the truth, this poor widow put more into the treasury than all the others. For all of them have contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, all she had to live on."
See: http://www.forumancientcoins.com/catalog/indexfrm.asp?vpar=105&pos=0Cleisthenes

[905a] Marcus Aurelius, 7 March 161 - 17 March 180 A.D.MARCUS AURELIUS AE [b[Sestertius. RIC 1222. 30mm, 24.5g. Struck at Rome, 177 AD. Obverse: M ANTONINUS AVG GERM SARM TR P XXXI, laureate head right; Reverse: LIBERALITAS AVG VII IMP VIIII COS III P P, Liberalitas standing left holding coin counter & cornucopia, SC in fields. Nice portrait. Ex Incitatus. Photo courtesy of Incitatus.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180)

Herbert W. Benario
Emory University

Introduction and Sources
The Vita of the emperor in the collection known as the Historia Augusta identifies him in its heading as Marcus Antoninus Philosophus, "Marcus Antoninus the Philosopher." Toward the end of the work, the following is reported about him, sententia Platonis semper in ore illius fuit, florere civitates si aut philosophi imperarent aut imperantes philosopharentur (27.7), "Plato's judgment was always on his lips, that states flourished if philosophers ruled or rulers were philosophers." It is this quality of Marcus' character which has made him a unique figure in Roman history, since he was the first emperor whose life was molded by, and devoted to, philosophy (Julian was the second and last). His reign was long and troubled, and in some ways showed the weaknesses of empire which ultimately led to the "Decline and Fall," yet his personal reputation, indeed his sanctity, have never failed of admirers. Contributing to his fame and reputation is a slender volume of Stoic philosophy which served as a kind of diary while he was involved in military campaigns, the Meditations, a book which can be described as an aureus libellus, a little golden book.

The sources for understanding Marcus and his reign are varied but generally disappointing. There is no major historian. The chief literary sources are the biography in the Historia Augusta, as well as those of Hadrian, Antoninus, Verus, and Avidius Cassius. Debate about this collection of imperial biographies has been heated and contentious for more than a century. In all likelihood, it is the work of a single author writing in the last years of the fourth-century. The information offered ranges from the precisely accurate to the wildly imaginative.

Cassius Dio, who wrote in the decade of the 230s, produced a long history of the empire which has survived, for our period, only in an abbreviated version. Fourth century historians, such as Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, occasionally furnish bits of information. Marcus' teacher, Fronto, a distinguished orator and rhetorician, is extremely useful. Papyri, inscriptions, coins, legal writings, and some of the church writers, such as Tertullian, Eusebius, and Orosius, are very important. Archaeology and art history, with their interpretation of monuments, make the history of Marcus' principate literally visible and offer important clues for understanding the context of his actions.

Early Life
He was born M. Annius Verus on April 26, 121, the scion of a distinguished family of Spanish origin (PIR2 A697). His father was Annius Verus (PIR2 A696), his mother Domitia Lucilla (PIR2 D183). His grandfather held his second consulate in that year and went on to reach a third in 126, a rare distinction in the entire history of the principate, and also served Hadrian as city prefect. The youth's education embraced both rhetoric and philosophy; his manner was serious, his intellectual pursuits deep and devoted, so that the emperor Hadrian took an interest in him and called him "Verissimus," "Most truthful," by punning on his name. He received public honors from an early age and seems to have long been in Hadrian's mind as a potential successor. When Hadrian's first choice as successor, L. Ceionius Commodus, died before his adoptive father, the second choice proved more fruitful. The distinguished senator T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, from Cisalpine Gaul, did succeed Hadrian, whose arrangements for the succession planned for the next generation as well. He required Antoninus to adopt the young Verus, now to be known as M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, as well as Commodus' son, henceforth known as L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus (PIR2 C606). The former was a bit more than seventeen years old, the latter was eight.

Career under Antoninus Pius
The long tenure of Antoninus Pius proved one of the most peaceful and prosperous in Roman history. The emperor himself was disinclined to military undertakings and never left Italy during his reign. Disturbances to the pax Romana occurred on the fringes of empire. Responses were decisive and successful, with legates in charge in the provinces. As a consequence, neither Caesar gained military experience nor was shown to the armies, a failing which later could have proved decisive and disastrous. Marcus rose steadily through the cursus honorum, holding consulates in 140 and 145, combining magistracies with priesthoods. He received the tribunicia potestas in 147, and perhaps also imperium proconsulare. Yet he never neglected the artes liberals. His closest contacts were with Fronto (c.95-c.160), the distinguished rhetorician and orator. His acquaintance included many other distinguished thinkers, such as Herodes Atticus (c.95-177), the Athenian millionaire and sophist, and Aelius Aristides (117-c.181), two of whose great speeches have survived and which reveal much of the mood and beliefs of the age. Yet it was Epictetus (c.50-c.120) who had the greatest philosophical impact and made him a firm Stoic. In the year 161 Marcus celebrated his fortieth birthday, a figure of noble appearance and unblemished character. He was leading a life which gave him as much honor and glory as he could have desired, probably much more than his private nature enjoyed, yet his life, and that of the empire, was soon to change. The emperor died on March 7, but not before clearly indicating to magistrates and senate alike his desire that Marcus succeed him by having the statue of Fortuna, which had been in his bedroom, transferred to Marcus. There was no opposition, no contrary voice, to his succession. He immediately chose his brother as co-emperor, as Hadrian had planned. From the beginning of the year they were joint consuls and held office for the entire year. Their official titulature was now Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and Imperator Caesar L. Aurelius Verus Augustus. The military qualities adumbrated by the word Imperator were soon much in demand, for the empire was under pressure in the year 161 in Britain, in Raetia, and in the east, where Parthia once again posed a significant danger.

The Parthian War (161-166)
The incursion in northern Britain and the difficulties along the Danube were soon satisfactorily managed by legates. The danger in the East was of a different magnitude. Tensions between Rome and Parthia had intensified in the last years of Antoninus' reign over control of Armenia, the vast buffer state which had often aroused enmity between the two powers, since each wished to be able to impose a king favorable to its interests. With Antoninus' death and the uncertainty attendant upon a new emperor (in this case two, a dyarchy, for the first time in Rome's history), the Parthian monarch, Vologaeses III, struck rapidly, placed his own candidate upon the Armenian throne, and inflicted severe setbacks upon the Roman forces sent to oppose him. Marcus decided to send his colleague Lucius Verus, whose imperial prestige would underscore the seriousness of the empire's response. Verus lacked military experience and was sorely lacking in the attributes of leadership and command; further, he was notorious for being chiefly interested in amusements and luxury. But Marcus surrounded him with several of the best generals at the empire's disposal, chief among them Avidius Cassius (c.130-175) (PIR2 A1402). From 162 on, Rome's successes and conquests were extensive and decisive. Most of Parthia's significant cities and strongholds, such as Seleucia and Ctesiphon, were stormed and destroyed, and the army's movements eastward recalled the movements of Alexander the Great some five centuries earlier. By 166, Parthia had capitulated and a Roman nominee sat on the Armenian throne. The victory appeared to be the most decisive since Trajan's conquest of Dacia, but, when Verus returned to Italy with his triumphant army, there came also a devastating plague, which had enormous effect on all provinces.
As is the case with all ancient diseases, it is almost impossible to identify this one. In all likelihood, however, it was smallpox; how severe the toll was is debated. Clearly, it cast a pall over the triumph celebrated by the two emperors, who were honored with the titles Armeniacus and Parthicus. The last years of this decade were dominated by efforts to overcome the plague and provide succour to its victims. But already in 166, the German tribes smashed the Danubian limes, threatening the empire's stability and even existence, more than Parthia had ever done. The first campaigns were punctuated by the death of Verus in 169, leaving Marcus as sole emperor. And so began the most difficult period of his life.

The German Wars
Early in 169, the Marcomanni and Quadi crossed the Danube, penetrated the intervening provinces, and entered Italy. The culmination of their onslaught was a siege of Aquileia. The effect upon the inhabitants of the peninsula was frightful. This was the first invasion of Italy since the late second century B.C., when the Cimbri and Teutones had been separately crushed by Marius. Perhaps more vivid in the collective imagination was the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 387, when the city was saved only by the payment of ransom.
The two emperors hastened north, after a rapid mobilization of forces, which included the drafting of slaves, since the manpower potential of the empire had been so impaired by the consequences of the plague and the losses and troop commitments in the East. Verus died while in the north; Marcus returned to Rome with the body and gave his brother full honors. He then turned north again and began his counterattacks against the barbarians. He did not know it at the time, but he was destined to spend most of his remaining years on the northern frontier. The only interlude was caused by revolt in the east.

We have no record of Marcus' ultimate intentions in these campaigns, yet the various stages were clear. First and foremost, the enemy had to be driven out of Italy and then into their own territory beyond the Danube. He strove to isolate the tribes and then defeat them individually, so that the ultimate manpower superiority of the empire and its greater skill in warfare and logistics could more easily be brought to bear. It was a successful strategy, as one tribe after another suffered defeat and reestablished ties with Rome. But it was a time-consuming and expensive operation, requiring the recruitment of two new legions, II Italica and III Italica, the construction of many new camps, such as the legionary fortress at Regensburg, with success accruing year by year. He intended to create two new provinces, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, thereby eliminating the Hungarian Plain and the headwaters of the Elbe as staging areas for invasion.

This steady, slow progress was interrupted in 175 by the action of the distinguished general Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, who claimed the empire for himself. Whether he responded to a rumor of Marcus' death or, as gossip had it, conspired with Marcus' wife, the emperor's response was quick and decisive. Leaving the northern wars, he traveled to the East, but Avidius was killed before Marcus arrived in the region. After spending time settling affairs and showing himself to some of the provinces, with particular attention shown to Athens, where he was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, as Hadrian and Verus had been. He returned to Italy and soon answered the call to duty once more on the northern frontier. He took with him as colleague his son Commodus, now merely sixteen years old but already long since marked out as his father's intended successor. The military campaigns proved successful, but in the spring of 180, when Marcus died, at least one more year of warfare was necessary for the attainment of the grand enterprise. Marcus recommended to Commodus continuation of the war, but the new emperor was eager to return to Rome and the ease and luxury of the imperial court and entered into a peace agreement. Never again was Rome to hold the upper hand in its dealings with the Germanic tribes beyond the now reestablished borders of the empire.

Administrative and Religious Policy
Marcus was a conscientious and careful administrator who devoted much attention to judicial matters. His appointments to major administrative positions were for the most part admirable. Difficult tasks were put in the charge of the most capable men; he was not afraid of comparison with his subordinates. Social mobility continued as it had been under his predecessors, with men from the provinces advancing into the upper echelons of the Roman aristocracy. Those of humble birth could make a good career; such a one was Pertinax (126-193), a gifted general, who in early 193 became emperor for a space of less than three months.

The judicial administration of Italy was put in the hands of iuridici, who represented the emperor and thus spoke with his authority. This was a practice which had been established by Hadrian but had been allowed to lapse by Antoninus. The centralization of government continued apace. The imperial finances were sorely stretched by the almost continuous wars. Trajan had brought great wealth, Decebalus' treasure, into the empire after his conquest of Dacia. No such profit awaited Marcus. When preparing for the northern wars, he auctioned off much of the imperial palace's valuables. In spite of the enormous expenses of war, Commodus found ample funds upon his accession as sole emperor for his expenditures and amusements.

Although Marcus was a devoted thinker and philosopher, he was deeply religious, at least outwardly. The state cult received full honor, and he recognized the validity of other people's beliefs, so that the variety of religions in the vast extent of the empire caused no difficulties for inhabitants or government, with one significant exception. The Christians were not hampered by any official policy; indeed the impact of the church spread enormously in the second century. Yet their availability as scapegoats for local crises made them subject to abuse or worse. There was violence against them in 167, and perhaps the worst stain on Marcus' principate stemmed from the pogrom of Christians in Lugdunum in southern France in 177. He did not cause it, nor, on the other hand, did he or his officials move to stop it. Indeed, Tertullian called him a friend of Christianity. Yet the events were a precursor of what would come in the century and a quarter which followed.

Building Programs and Monuments
Many of Marcus' predecessors transformed the face of the capital with their building programs, either by the vast range of their undertaking or by the extraordinary significance of individual monuments. Others did very little to leave a tangible mark. Marcus fell into the latter group. There is record of very few monuments for which he and his brother were responsible. Very early in their reign they honored the deceased Antoninus with a column in the Campus Martius, no longer in situ but largely surviving. The shaft, which seems not to have been sculpted, was used for the restoration of Augustus' obelisk, now in Piazza Montecitorio, in the eighteenth century. The base, which was sculpted on all four sides, is now on display in the Vatican Museum. The chief feature is the apotheosis of the emperor and his long deceased wife, the elder Faustina, as they are borne to heaven. Also presented on this relief are two eagles and personifications of the goddess Roma and of the Campus Martius, represented as a young male figure.

There were three arches which commemorated the military achievements of the two emperors. No trace has been found of an early monument to Verus. Two arches later honored Marcus, both of which have disappeared but have left significant sculptural remains. The eight rectangular reliefs preserved on the Arch of Constantine came from one arch. Similarly, the three reliefs displayed in the stairwell of the Conservatori Museum on the Capitoline Hill came from another. One relief has disappeared from the latter monument.

Certainly the best known monument of Marcus' principate is the column, which rises from Piazza Colonna. It is twin to Trajan's column in height and design, although the artistic craftsmanship of the reliefs which envelop the shaft is much inferior. The subject is Marcus' campaigns against the Marcomanni and Sarmati in the years 172-75. The most interesting panel represents the famous rainstorm, when the army, overwhelmed by drought, was suddenly saved by the divine intervention of rain. Although begun in the latter part of the decade, the column was not completed until 193, when Septimius Severus had become emperor.

The famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which survived the centuries near San Giovanni in Laterano because the rider was identified as Constantine, no longer greets the visitor to the Capitoline, where Michelangelo had placed it in the sixteenth century. It was removed in the 1980s because pollution was destroying it. After careful treatment and restoration, it is now displayed within the museum, with a replica placed in the center of the piazza.

Although outside Rome, mention should be made of the monumental frieze commemorating Lucius Verus' victory over the Parthians in 165. It was an ornament of the city of Ephesus; the extensive sculptural remains are now in the Ephesus Museum in Vienna.

Family
As part of Hadrian's plans for his succession, when Ceionius Commodus was his choice, Marcus was betrothed to the latter's daughter. But when Ceionius died and Antoninus became Hadrian's successor, that arrangement was nullified and Marcus was chosen for the Emperor's daughter, the younger Faustina (PIR2 A716). She had been born in 129, was hence eight years younger than he. They were married in 145; the marriage endured for thirty years. She bore him thirteen children, of whom several died young; the most important were a daughter, Lucilla, and a son Commodus. Lucilla was deployed for political purposes, married first to Lucius Verus in 164, when she was seventeen, and then, after his death, to Claudius Pompeianus Quintianus of Antioch, a much older man who was an important associate of her father /ii]PIR2 C973). Commodus became joint-emperor with his father in 177 and three years later ruled alone.

Faustina's reputation suffered much abuse. She was accused of employing poison and of murdering people, as well as being free with her favors with gladiators, sailors, and also men of rank, particularly Avidius Cassius. Yet Marcus trusted her implicitly and defended her vigorously. She accompanied him on several campaigns and was honored with the title mater castrorum. She was with him in camp at Halala in southern Cappadocia in the winter of 175 when she died in an accident. Marcus dedicated a temple to her honor and had the name of the city changed to Faustinopolis.

Death and Succession
In early 180, while Marcus and Commodus were fighting in the north, Marcus became ill. Which disease carried him off we do not know, but for some days Marcus took no food or drink, being now eager to die. He died on March 17, in the city of Vindobona, although one source reports that it was in Sirmium. His ashes were brought to Rome and placed in Hadrian's mausoleum. Commodus succeeded to all power without opposition, and soon withdrew from the war, thereby stymieing his father's designs and ambitions. It was a change of rulers that proved disastrous for people and empire. Dio called the succession a change from a golden kingdom to one of iron and rust.

Reputation
Gibbon called Marcus "that philosophic monarch," a combination of adjective and noun which sets Marcus apart from all other Roman emperors. His renown has, in subsequent centuries, suffered little, although he was by no means a "perfect" person. He was perhaps too tolerant of other people's failings, he himself used opium. The abundance of children whom his wife bore him included, alas, a male who was to prove one of Rome's worst rulers. How much better it would have been if Marcus had had no son and had chosen a successor by adoption, so that the line of the five good emperors, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, could have been extended. It was not to be, and for that Marcus must accept some responsibility.

Yet he was a man of ability and a sense of duty who sacrificed his own delights and interests to the well-being of the state. He was capax imperii, he did his best, and history has been kind to him. As Hamlet said to Horatio, when awaiting the appearance of the ghost of his father,

"He was a man! Take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again." (I 2, 187-88)

His memory remains vivid and tactile because of the famous column, the equestrian statue, and his slender volume of thoughts, written in Greek, the Meditations, from which I choose two quotations with which to conclude:

"If mind is common to us, then also the reason, whereby we are reasoning beings, is common. If this be so, then also the reason which enjoins what is to be done or left undone is common. If this be so, law also is common; if this be so, we are citizens; if this be so, we are partakers in one constitution; if this be so, the Universe is a kind of Commonwealth." (4.4)

"At dawn of day, when you dislike being called, have this thought ready: 'I am called to man's labour; why then do I make a difficulty if I am going out to do what I was born to do and what I was brought into the world for?'" (5.1; both in Farquharson's translation)

Copyright (C) 2001, Herbert W. Benario.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.Cleisthenes

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