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----------     The Sign Language of Roman Coins     ----------

Heads in Hands

You can click on any coin image to see the full coin.

"Here I stand, head in hand ..." —from "You’ve Got to Hide Your Love Away" by the Beatles

The reverse of a denarius of M. Sergius Silus showing a horseman with a severed head The reverse of a denarius of M. Sergius Silus showing a horseman with a severed head.

But whose head? Roman culture is often said to have been bloody and uncaring. Perhaps this is exemplified by those coins which show deities or personifications holding severed heads in their hands. And in some cases this seems right. The first coin below, issued by M. Sergius Silus, is a depiction of an actual historic scene – or as near actual as such scenes normally get when depicted by biased descendants. But in other cases, it is probably merely a symbolic depiction of one deity or personification having power over another, or assuming their characteristics. Of course, the fact that this was seen as a good way to indicate superior power or conquest tells its own story.

This republican denarius of M. Sergius Silus from 116-115 BCE celebrates the father of the moneyer, a fierce fighter whose artificial right hand and many wounds didn't prevent him from fighting on horseback and beheading his enemies. This head is sometimes identified as Gallic because of its wild hair, but the elder M. Sergius Silus fought in the second Punic war against the Carthaginians, so that's unlikely.

Several Republican coins showed battle scenes, though few as fierce as this one. 200 years later, heads were carried in a much more controlled way on coins of the Roman Empire.

The reverse of a denarius of Trajan showing Aeternitas The reverse of a denarius of Trajan showing Aeternitas.
The reverse of a denarius of Hadrian showing Aeternitas The reverse of a denarius of Hadrian showing Aeternitas.

Here are two coins showing Aeternitas, the personification of eternity. On the far right, a denarius of Trajan from 111 CE; next to it, a denarius of Trajan, his successor, from 119-122 CE. Their symbology has at least three layers of meaning. In one hand, Aeternitas holds the head of Sol, indicated by radiating sun-rays. In the other is the head of Luna, indicated by a crescent moon. This can be read as eternity holding the sun and moon in her hands. Why? Because she embodies the whole of time, and has dominion over both day and night, forever.

Hadrian's coin differs from Trajan's in that the heads of Sol and Luna are held a little higher and facing inwards, so that Aeternitas is looking Sol in the eye.

The reverse of an Alexandrian tetradrachm of Maximianus showing Alexandria carrying the head of Serapis The reverse of an Alexandrian tetradrachm of Maximianus showing Alexandria carrying the head of Serapis.

Over 150 years later, disembodied heads once again appeared on Rome's coins. Their symbology revolved around Sol, Serapis and Genius. On the left, on a potin tetradrachm of Maximianus, the head of Serapis is being held by a personification of the city of Alexandria, where the coin was struck. Serapis was created there 700 years before this coin, invented by the first Ptolemy to make a bridge between the Egyptian and Hellenic inhabitants. It was this same Ptolemy who made Alexandria the capital of Egypt, so Alexandria and Serapis certainly belong together.

The legend on this coin is another fusion of the two cultures. The "L" is thought to be based on an Egyptian word meaning "year", and the Greek delta indicates the fourth year of Maximianus' reign.

The reverse of a follis of Licinius I showing Sol carrying the head of Serapis The reverse of a follis of Licinius I showing Sol carrying the head of Serapis.
The reverse of a silvered follis of Maximinus II showing Sol carrying the head of Serapis. The reverse of a silvered follis of Maximinus II showing Sol carrying the head of Serapis.

A few years later, a group of coins with closely related symbology was struck by Maximinus II Daia, one of the eastern Emperors during the time of the Tetrarchy. This was a time of flux, with changing alliances and some deaths, eventually leading to Constantine taking over the whole empire in 324; but in 311 and 312, Daia controlled several eastern mints.

On the right, two of these coins with types that vary only in their details. On the far right, a follis of Licinius I from Antioch; and next to it, a silvered follis of Maximinus II from Nicomedia. The main figure on these coins is Sol, wearing his crown of rays. The head he is holding is once again that of Serapis. Sol also appears to be wearing a robe that belongs to Serapis, so it is clear that he is taking on the Serapis role. There is more about this interesting subject on my Sol page, and there is also a page about Serapis.

These heads show a little neck, and maybe even a glimpse of shoulder, so they are probably supposed to be busts. This is even more evident on the coins shown below. This really demonstrates the difference in intent between these coins and the Republican denarius at the top, with its bloodthirsty battle scene.

All these handome folles were made with a surface layer of silver, so that they would glitter in your hand, but on most specimens it wore off long ago.

The reverse of a follis of Maximinus II showing Genius carrying Sol's head The reverse of a follis of Maximinus II showing Genius carrying the head of Sol.
The reverse of a follis of Constantine the Great showing Genius carrying Sol's head The reverse of a follis of Constantine the Great showing Genius carrying Sol's head.
The reverse of a follis of Maximinus II showing Genius carrying the head of Serapis The reverse of a follis of Maximinus II showing Genius carrying the head of Serapis.

Three more variations on the same theme. On the far left, another follis of Maximinus II from Antioch, but this time it's Sol's head in the hand. It is being carried by the guiding spirit of the Augusti, who also holds a cornucopia, a horn of plenty. So, at the heart of the imperium is a spirit that overflows with all good things and has a radiant, unconquerable nature. A nice bit of propaganda!

The centre coin is a follis of Constantine the Great from Antioch. Maximinus II Daia's mints struck coins in the names of all three of the current emperors. None of them were exactly on friendly terms, but at this time, they were in a sort of uneasy alliance. On this coin in the name of Constantine, you can see that, allowing for minor variations in style between different officinas, the design is identical to the last coin. The Antioch mint also struck the same type in the name of Licinius.

The rightmost of the three is yet another follis of Maximinus II Daia, this time from Alexandria. Here's the popular head of Serapis again, carried by the same Genius of the same emperors as the head of Sol on the other two coins. Sol and Serapis are clearly meant to be similar in their symbolic meanings. On this coin, the similar headwear of Genius and Serapis is obvious. But although they are identical in their meaning, there is a subtle difference. Genius wears a modius, a basket or sometimes a metal container used as a public corn measure; Serapis wears a kalathos, a basket with a more domestic background. Neither would seem to us to be an obvious choice as headwear.


The content of this page was last updated on 9 July 2008

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