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021a. CommodusCaesar 175-176. Emperor 177-192

Son of Marcus. End of the “Excellent Emperors.” Fancied himself as the reincarnation of Hercules, and ‘fought’ in the Colosseum. Considered renaming Rome as Colonia Commodiana. Finally strangled by conspirators.

Coin: Denarius. Rome. 18mm, 2.71 g. Obv: L AEL AVREL COMM AVG P FEL. Laureate head right. Rev: IOVI DEFENS SALVTIS AVG. Jupiter standing right, holding spear in left hand and hurling thunderbolt, surrounded by seven stars. RIC 256. Naumann Auctions 97, Lot 489.
lawrence c
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-25a_C-318_Rome_80-AD__Q-001_18mm_3,28g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs, #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs, #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs; wreath atop.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 18,0mm, weight: 3,28g, axis: 6h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD p-119, BMC 66, RSC 318, BNC 53,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
1 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-25a_C-318_Rome_80-AD__Q-002_axis-5h_16,5-18mm_2,96g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs, #2022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs, #2
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Two curule chairs; wreath atop.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 16,5-18,0mm, weight: 2,96g, axis: 5h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0108, RIC II(1962) 0025aD p-119, BMC 66, RSC 318, BNC 53,
Q-002
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
quadrans
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RICnew-112_RIC-II-26a_C-309_Rome_80-AD_Q-001_axis-0h_18mm_3,33g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0112, RIC II(1962) 0026a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Dolphin coiled around anchor, #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0112, RIC II(1962) 0026a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Dolphin coiled around an anchor, #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Dolphin coiled around an anchor.
exergue: -/-//-- , diameter: 18mm, weight: 3,33g, axis: 0 h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0112, RIC II(1962) 0026a p-119, BMC 72, RSC 309, BNC 60,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
3 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-xx_C-xxx_Rome_80-AD__Q-001_20mm_3,20g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant, #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant, #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant walking left.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 20mm, weight: 3,20g, axis: h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a p-119, BMC 43, RSC 303, BNC 37,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
3 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RICnew-115_RIC-II-22a_C-303_Rome_80-AD__Q-002_19mm_3,25g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant, #21022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a, AR-Denarius, Roma, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant, #2
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Elephant walking left.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 19,0mm, weight: 3,25g, axis: h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0115, RIC II(1962) 0022a p-119, BMC 43, RSC 303, BNC 37,
Q-002
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
1 commentsquadrans
RICb_0119,_RIC_II(1962)_0023a,_022_Titus__AR-Den_IMP_TITVS_CAES_VESPASIAN_AVG_P_M,_TR_P_IX_IMP_XV_COS_VIII_P_P,_Rome,_80_AD_Q-001,_5h,_17,8-18,9mm,_3,02g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0119, RIC II(1962) 0023a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (winged) on the draped table, #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0119, RIC II(1962) 0023a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (winged) on the draped table, #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (winged) on the draped table or chair with one, two or no crossbars.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 17,8-18,9mm, weight: 3,02g, axis: 5h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0119, RIC II(1962) 0023a p-119, RSC 316, BMC 51,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
1 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Denar_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-new-119_RIC-II-23a_C-316_Rome_80-AD__Q-001_18mm_3,28g-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0119var., RIC II(1962) 0023a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (wingless) draped table, #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0119var., RIC II(1962) 0023a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (wingless) on the draped table, #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Thunderbolt (wingless) on the draped table or chair with one, two or no crossbars.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 18mm, weight: 3,28g, axis: h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0119var., RIC II(1962) 0023a p-119, RSC 316, BMC 51,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
4 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Den_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-II-242_p-119_RIC-new-122_C-313_Rome_80-AD_Q-001_axis-xh_xxmm_x,xxg-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0122, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #1022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0122, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #1
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne with curved back decorated with three floral ornaments; below, fringed seat cover and strut.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 17,0-18,0mm, weight: 3,15g, axis: 5h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0122, RIC II(1962) 0024a p-119, RSC-313, BMC 58,
Q-001
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
1 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Den_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-II-24a_p-119_RIC-new-124a_C-313_Rome_80-AD_Q-003_axis-xh_xxmm_x,xxg-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0124a, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #3022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0124a, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #3
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Draped throne with triangular back; grain ears atop.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: mm, weight: g, axis: h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0124a, RIC II(1962) 0024a p-119, RSC-313, BMC 58,
Q-003
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
2 commentsquadrans
Titus_AR-Den_IMP-TITVS-CAES-VESPASIAN-AVG-P-M_TR-P-IX-IMP-XV-COS-VIII-P-P_RIC-II-24a_p-119_RIC-new-124c_C-313_Rome_80-AD_Q-002_axis-xh_xxmm_x,xxg-s.jpg
022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0124c, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #2022b Titus (69-79 A.D. Caesar, 79-81 A.D. Augustus), RIC² 0124c, RIC II(1962) 0024a, AR-Denarius, Rome, TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Throne #2
avers: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M, Laureate head right.
reverse: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P, Draped throne with triangular back, grain ears atop.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 17,0-17,7mm, weight: 3,24g, axis: 6h,
mint: Rome, date: 80 A.D., ref: RIC² 0124c, RIC II(1962) 0024a p-119, RSC-313, BMC 58,
Q-002
"This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD."
quadrans
LarryW1916.jpg
0689 Focas, 602-610Æ pentanummium, 14.5mm, 1.84g, Nice F
Struck at Carthage mint
D N FOCA PERP A, crowned bust facing / large V between two stars, left star has pellets above and below, cross above. Rare
Ex:Forvm Ancient Coins; Colosseum Coin Exchange
Sear 689var (no pellets right star)
Lawrence W
22233_black.jpg
22233 Gallienus/ She-Wolf22233 Gallienus/ She-Wolf 264 - 265 A.D.
Obv: GALLIENVS AVG
radiate and draped bust right, seen from behind
Rev: AETERNITAS AVG
she-wolf standing right, head left, suckling the infant twins Romulus and Remus
Mint: Antioch (Antakya, Turkey) mint, 3.590g, 21.3mm, 180 degrees
Göbl MIR 1628c, RSC IV 46b, RIC V-1 S628, Hunter IV S194, SRCV III 10171 var. (cuirassed bust left)
Purchase from Forum Ancient coins, ex Colosseum Coin Exchange

Blayne W
VespasianPax_RICii10.jpg
710a, Vespasian, 1 July 69 - 24 June 79 A.D.Silver denarius, RIC II, 10, aVF, 3.5 g, 18mm, Rome mint, 69-71 AD; Obverse: IMP CAESA[R] VESPASIANV[S AV]G - Laureate head right; Reverse: COS ITER [T]R POT - Pax seated left holding branch and caduceus. Ex Imperial Coins.


De Imperatoribus Romanis:
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families


Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 69-79)


John Donahue
College of William and Mary

Introduction

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. A.D. 9, d. A.D. 79, emperor A.D. 69-79) restored peace and stability to an empire in disarray following the death of Nero in A.D. 68. In the process he established the Flavian dynasty as the legitimate successor to the Imperial throne. Although we lack many details about the events and chronology of his reign, Vespasian provided practical leadership and a return to stable government - accomplishments which, when combined with his other achievements, make his emperorship particularly notable within the history of the Principate.

Early Life and Career

Vespasian was born at Falacrina near Sabine Reate on 17 November, A.D. 9, the son of T. Flavius Sabinus, a successful tax collector and banker, and Vespasia Polla. Both parents were of equestrian status. Few details of his first fifteen years survive, yet it appears that his father and mother were often away from home on business for long periods. As a result, Vespasian's early education became the responsibility of his paternal grandmother, Tertulla. [[1]] In about A.D. 25 Vespasian assumed the toga virilis and later accepted the wearing of the latus clavus, and with it the senatorial path that his older brother, T. Flavius Sabinus, had already chosen. [[2]] Although many of the particulars are lacking, the posts typically occupied by one intent upon a senatorial career soon followed: a military tribunate in Thrace, perhaps for three or four years; a quaestorship in Crete-Cyrene; and the offices of aedile and praetor, successively, under the emperor Gaius. [[3]]

It was during this period that Vespasian married Flavia Domitilla. Daughter of a treasury clerk and former mistress of an African knight, Flavia lacked the social standing and family connections that the politically ambitious usually sought through marriage. In any case, the couple produced three children, a daughter, also named Flavia Domitilla, and two sons, the future emperors Titus and Domitian . Flavia did not live to witness her husband's emperorship and after her death Vespasian returned to his former mistress Caenis, who had been secretary to Antonia (daughter of Marc Antony and mother of Claudius). Caenis apparently exerted considerable influence over Vespasian, prompting Suetonius to assert that she remained his wife in all but name, even after he became emperor. [[4]]

Following the assassination of Gaius on 24 January, A.D. 41, Vespasian advanced rapidly, thanks in large part to the new princeps Claudius, whose favor the Flavians had wisely secured with that of Antonia, the mother of Germanicus, and of Claudius' freedmen, especially Narcissus. [[5]] The emperor soon dispatched Vespasian to Argentoratum (Strasbourg) as legatus legionis II Augustae, apparently to prepare the legion for the invasion of Britain. Vespasian first appeared at the battle of Medway in A.D. 43, and soon thereafter led his legion across the south of England, where he engaged the enemy thirty times in battle, subdued two tribes, and conquered the Isle of Wight. According to Suetonius, these operations were conducted partly under Claudius and partly under Vespasian's commander, Aulus Plautius. Vespasian's contributions, however, did not go unnoticed; he received the ornamenta triumphalia and two priesthoods from Claudius for his exploits in Britain. [[6]]

By the end of A.D. 51 Vespasian had reached the consulship, the pinnacle of a political career at Rome. For reasons that remain obscure he withdrew from political life at this point, only to return when chosen proconsul of Africa about A.D. 63-64. His subsequent administration of the province was marked by severity and parsimony, earning him a reputation for being scrupulous but unpopular. [[7]] Upon completion of his term, Vespasian returned to Rome where, as a senior senator, he became a man of influence in the emperor Nero's court. [[8]] Important enough to be included on Nero's tour of Greece in A.D. 66-67, Vespasian soon found himself in the vicinity of increasing political turbulence in the East. The situation would prove pivotal in advancing his career.

Judaea and the Accession to Power

In response to rioting in Caesarea and Jerusalem that had led to the slaughter in the latter city of Jewish leaders and Roman soldiers, Nero granted to Vespasian in A.D. 66 a special command in the East with the objective of settling the revolt in Judaea. By spring A.D. 67, with 60,000 legionaries, auxiliaries, and allies under his control, Vespasian set out to subdue Galilee and then to cut off Jerusalem. Success was quick and decisive. By October all of Galilee had been pacified and plans for the strategic encirclement of Jerusalem were soon formed. [[9]] Meanwhile, at the other end of the empire, the revolts of Gaius Iulius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, and Servius Sulpicius Galba , governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, had brought Nero's reign to the brink of collapse. The emperor committed suicide in June, A.D. 68, thereby ensuring chaos for the next eighteen months, as first Galba and then Marcus Salvius Otho and Aulus Vitellius acceded to power. Each lacked broad-based military and senatorial support; each would be violently deposed in turn. [[10]]

Still occupied with plans against Jerusalem, Vespasian swore allegiance to each emperor. Shortly after Vitellius assumed power in spring, A.D. 69, however, Vespasian met on the border of Judaea and Syria with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria, and after a series of private and public consultations, the two decided to revolt. [[11]] On July 1, at the urging of Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, the legions of Alexandria declared for Vespasian, as did the legions of Judaea two days later. By August all of Syria and the Danube legions had done likewise. Vespasian next dispatched Mucianus to Italy with 20,000 troops, while he set out from Syria to Alexandria in order to control grain shipments for the purpose of starving Italy into submission. [[12]] The siege of Jerusalem he placed in the hands of his son Titus.

Meanwhile, the Danubian legions, unwilling to wait for Mucianus' arrival, began their march against Vitellius ' forces. The latter army, suffering from a lack of discipline and training, and unaccustomed to the heat of Rome, was defeated at Cremona in late October. [[13]] By mid-December the Flavian forces had reached Carsulae, 95 kilometers north of Rome on the Flaminian Road, where the Vitellians, with no further hope of reinforcements, soon surrendered. At Rome, unable to persuade his followers to accept terms for his abdication, Vitellius was in peril. On the morning of December 20 the Flavian army entered Rome. By that afternoon, the emperor was dead. [[14]]

Tacitus records that by December 22, A.D. 69, Vespasian had been given all the honors and privileges usually granted to emperors. Even so, the issue remains unclear, owing largely to a surviving fragment of an enabling law, the lex de imperio Vespasiani, which conferred powers, privileges, and exemptions, most with Julio-Claudian precedents, on the new emperor. Whether the fragment represents a typical granting of imperial powers that has uniquely survived in Vespasian's case, or is an attempt to limit or expand such powers, remains difficult to know. In any case, the lex sanctioned all that Vespasian had done up to its passing and gave him authority to act as he saw fit on behalf of the Roman people. [[15]]

What does seem clear is that Vespasian felt the need to legitimize his new reign with vigor. He zealously publicized the number of divine omens that predicted his accession and at every opportunity he accumulated multiple consulships and imperial salutations. He also actively promoted the principle of dynastic succession, insisting that the emperorship would fall to his son. The initiative was fulfilled when Titus succeeded his father in A.D. 79.[[16]]

Emperorship

Upon his arrival in Rome in late summer, A.D. 70, Vespasian faced the daunting task of restoring a city and a government ravaged by the recent civil wars. Although many particulars are missing, a portrait nevertheles emerges of a ruler conscientiously committed to the methodical renewal of both city and empire. Concerning Rome itself, the emperor encouraged rebuilding on vacated lots, restored the Capitol (burned in A.D. 69), and also began work on several new buildings: a temple to the deified Claudius on the Caelian Hill, a project designed to identify Vespasian as a legitimate heir to the Julio-Claudians, while distancing himself from Nero ; a temple of Peace near the Forum; and the magnificent Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), located on the site of the lake of Nero 's Golden House. [[17]]

Claiming that he needed forty thousand million sesterces for these projects and for others aimed at putting the state on more secure footing, Vespasian is said to have revoked various imperial immunities, manipulated the supply of certain commodities to inflate their price, and increased provincial taxation. [[18]] The measures are consistent with his characterization in the sources as both obdurate and avaricious. There were occasional political problems as well: Helvidius Priscus, an advocate of senatorial independence and a critic of the Flavian regime from the start, was exiled after A.D. 75 and later executed; Marcellus Eprius and A. Alienus Caecina were condemned by Titus for conspiracy, the former committing suicide, the latter executed in A.D. 79.
As Suetonius claims, however, in financial matters Vespasian always put revenues to the best possible advantage, regardless of their source. Tacitus, too, offers a generally favorable assessment, citing Vespasian as the first man to improve after becoming emperor. [[19]] Thus do we find the princeps offering subventions to senators not possessing the property qualifications of their rank, restoring many cities throughout the empire, and granting state salaries for the first time to teachers of Latin and Greek rhetoric. To enhance Roman economic and social life even further, he encouraged theatrical productions by building a new stage for the Theatre of Marcellus, and he also put on lavish state dinners to assist the food trades. [[20]]

In other matters the emperor displayed similar concern. He restored the depleted ranks of the senatorial and equestrian orders with eligible Italian and provincial candidates and reduced the backlog of pending court cases at Rome. Vespasian also re-established discipline in the army, while punishing or dismissing large numbers of Vitellius ' men. [[21]]
Beyond Rome, the emperor increased the number of legions in the East and continued the process of imperial expansion by the annexation of northern England, the pacification of Wales, and by advances into Scotland and southwest Germany between the Rhine and the Danube. Vespasian also conferred rights on communities abroad, especially in Spain, where the granting of Latin rights to all native communities contributed to the rapid Romanization of that province during the Imperial period. [[22]]

Death and Assessment

In contrast to his immediate imperial predecessors, Vespasian died peacefully - at Aquae Cutiliae near his birthplace in Sabine country on 23 June, A.D. 79, after contracting a brief illness. The occasion is said to have inspired his deathbed quip: "Oh my, I must be turning into a god!" [[23]] In fact, public deification did follow his death, as did his internment in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside the Julio-Claudians.

A man of strict military discipline and simple tastes, Vespasian proved to be a conscientious and generally tolerant administrator. More importantly, following the upheavals of A.D. 68-69, his reign was welcome for its general tranquility and restoration of peace. In Vespasian Rome found a leader who made no great breaks with tradition, yet his ability ro rebuild the empire and especially his willingness to expand the composition of the governing class helped to establish a positive working model for the "good emperors" of the second century.

Bibliography

Since the scholarship on Vespasian is more comprehensive than can be treated here, the works listed below are main accounts or bear directly upon issues discussed in the entry above. A comprehensive modern anglophone study of this emperor is yet to be produced.

Atti congresso internazionale di studi Flaviani, 2 vols. Rieti, 1983.

Atti congresso internazionale di studi Vespasianei, 2 vols. Rieti, 1981.

Bosworth, A.B. "Vespasian and the Provinces: Some Problems of the Early 70s A.D." Athenaeum 51 (1973): 49-78.

Brunt, P. A. "Lex de imperio Vespasiani." JRS (67) 1977: 95-116.

D'Espèrey, S. Franchet. "Vespasien, Titus et la littérature." ANRW II.32.5: 3048-3086.

Dudley, D. and Webster, G. The Roman Conquest of Britain. London, 1965.

Gonzalez, J. "The Lex Irnitana: A New Copy of the Flavian Municipal Law." JRS 76 (1986): 147-243.

Grant, M. The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 476. New York, 1985.

Homo, L. Vespasien, l'Empereur du bons sens (69-79 ap. J.-C.). Paris, 1949.

Levi, M.A. "I Flavi." ANRW II.2: 177-207.

McCrum, M. and Woodhead, A. G. Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors Including the Year of the Revolution. Cambridge, 1966.

Nicols, John. Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae. Wiesbaden, 1978.

Scarre, C. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors. The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London, 1995.

Suddington, D. B. The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian, 49 B.C. - A.D. 79. Harare: U. of Zimbabwe, 1982.

Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford, 1958.

Wardel, David. "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol." Historia 45 (1996): 208-222.

Wellesley, K. The Long Year: A.D. 69. Bristol, 1989, 2nd ed.


Notes

[[1]] Suet. Vesp. 2.1. Suetonius remains the major source but see also Tac. Hist. 2-5; Cass. Dio 65; Joseph. BJ 3-4.

[[2]] Suetonius (Vesp. 2.1) claims that Vespasian did not accept the latus clavus, the broad striped toga worn by one aspiring to a senatorial career, immediately. The delay, however, was perhaps no more than three years. See J. Nicols, Vespasian and the Partes Flavianae (Wiesbaden, 1978), 2.

[[3]] Military tribunate and quaestorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3; aedileship: ibid., 5.3, in which Gaius, furious that Vespasian had not kept the streets clean, as was his duty, ordered some soldiers to load him with filth;,they complied by stuffing his toga with as much as it could hold. See also Dio 59.12.2-3; praetorship: Suet. Vesp. 2.3, in which Vespasian is depicted as one of Gaius' leading adulators, an account consistent with Tacitus' portrayal (Hist 1.50.4; 2.5.1) of his early career. For a more complete discussion of these posts and attendant problems of dating, see Nicols, Vespasian, 2-7.

[[4]] Marriage and Caenis: Suet. Vesp. 3; Cass. Dio 65.14.

[[5]] Nicols, Vespasian, 12-39.

[[6]] Suet. Vesp. 4.1 For additional details on Vespasian's exploits in Britain, see D. Dudley and G. Webster, The Roman Conquest of Britain (London, 1965), 55 ff., 98.

[[7]] Concerning Vespasian's years between his consulship and proconsulship, see Suet. Vesp. 4.2 and Nicols, Vespasian, 9. On his unpopularity in Africa, see Suet. Vesp. 4.3, an account of a riot at Hadrumentum, where he was once pelted with turnips. In recording that Africa supported Vitellius in A.D. 69, Tacitus too suggests popular dissatisfaction with Vespasian's proconsulship. See Hist. 2.97.2.

[[8]] This despite the fact that the sources record two rebukes of Vespasian, one for extorting money from a young man seeking career advancement (Suet. Vesp. 4.3), the other for either leaving the room or dozing off during one of the emperor's recitals (Suet. Vesp. 4.4 and 14, which places the transgression in Greece; Tac. (Ann. 16.5.3), who makes Rome and the Quinquennial Games of A.D. 65 the setting; A. Braithwaite, C. Suetoni Tranquilli Divus Vespasianus, Oxford, 1927, 30, who argues for both Greece and Rome).

[[9]] Subjugation of Galilee: Joseph. BJ 3.65-4.106; siege of Jerusalem: ibid., 4.366-376, 414.

[[10]] Revolt of Vindex: Suet. Nero 40; Tac. Ann. 14.4; revolt of Galba: Suet. Galba 10; Plut. Galba, 4-5; suicide of Nero: Suet. Nero 49; Cass. Dio 63.29.2. For the most complete account of the period between Nero's death and the accession of Vespasian, see K. Wellesley, The Long Year: A.D. 69, 2nd. ed. (Bristol, 1989).

[[11]] Tac. Hist. 2.76.

[[12]] Troops in support of Vespasian: Suet. Vit. 15; Mucianus and his forces: Tac. Hist. 2.83; Vespasian and grain shipments: Joseph. BJ 4.605 ff.; see also Tac. Hist. 3.48, on Vespasian's possible plan to shut off grain shipments to Italy from Carthage as well.

[[13]] On Vitellius' army and its lack of discipline, see Tac. Hist. 2.93-94; illness of army: ibid., 2.99.1; Cremona: ibid., 3.32-33.

[[14]] On Vitellius' last days, see Tac. Hist. 3.68-81. On the complicated issue of Vitellius' death date, see L. Holzapfel, "Römische Kaiserdaten," Klio 13 (1913): 301.

[[15]] Honors, etc. Tac. Hist. 4.3. For more on the lex de imperio Vespasiani, see P. A. Brunt, "Lex de imperio Vespasiani," JRS (67) 1977: 95-116.

[[16]] Omens: Suet. Vesp. 5; consulships and honors: ibid., 8; succession of sons: ibid., 25.

[[17]] On Vespasian's restoration of Rome, see Suet. Vesp. 9; Cass. Dio 65.10; D. Wardel, "Vespasian, Helvidius Priscus and the Restoration of the Capitol," Historia 45 (1996): 208-222.

[[18]] Suet. Vesp. 16.

[[19]] Ibid.; Tac. Hist. 1.50.

[[20]] Suet. Vesp. 17-19.

[[21]] Ibid., 8-10.

[[22]] On Vespasian's exploits in Britain, see esp. Tac., Agricola, eds. R. M. Ogilvie and I. A. Richmond (1967), and W. S. Hanson, Agricola and the Conquest of the North (1987); on the granting of Latin rights in Spain, see, e.g., J. Gonzalez, "The Lex Irnitana: a New Copy of the Flavian Municipal Law." JRS 76 (1986): 147-243.

[[23]] For this witticism and other anecdotes concerning Vespasian's sense of humor, see Suet. Vesp. 23.

Copyright (C) 1998, John Donahue. Published on De Imperatoribus Romanis, an Online Encyplopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families.
http://www.roman-emperors.org/vespasia.htm
Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.





Cleisthenes
TitusCommColosseum.jpg
711a, Titus, 24 June 79 - 13 September 81 A.D. TITUS AUGUSTUS AR silver denarius. Struck at Rome, 80 AD. IMP TITVS CAESAR VESPASIAN AVG PM, laureate head right. Reverse - TRP IX IMP XV COS VIII PP, elephant walking left. Fully legible legends, about Very Fine, nice golden toning. Commemmorates the completion and dedication of the Colosseum and the opening of games. SCARCE. RCV 2512, valued at $544 in EF. 17mm, 3.1g. Ex Incitatus.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 79-81)


John Donahue
College of William and Mary

Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born on December 30, 39 A.D. He was the oldest of the three children of the founder of the Flavian Dynasty, Vespasian. Beginning in the year 70 Titus was named Cæsar and coregent; he was highly educated and a brilliant poet and orator in both Latin and Greek. He won military fame during the Jewish Revolt of 69-70. In April, 70, he appeared before the walls of Jerusalem, and conquered and destroyed the city after a siege of five months. He wished to preserve the Temple, but in the struggle with the Jews who rushed out of it a soldier threw a brand into the building. The siege and taking of the city were accompanied by barbarous cruelties. The next year Titus celebrated his victory by a triumph; to increase the fame of the Flavian dynasty the inscription on the triumphal arch represented the overthrow of the helpless people as a heroic achievement. Titus succeeded his father as Emperor in 79.

Before becoming emperor, tradition records that Titus was feared as the next Nero, a perception that may have developed from his association with Berenice, his alleged heavy-handedness as praetorian prefect, and tales of sexual debauchery. Once in office, however, both emperor and his reign were portrayed in universally positive terms. The suddenness of this transformation raises immediate suspicions, yet it is difficult to know whether the historical tradition is suspect or if Titus was in fact adept at taking off one mask for another. What is clear, however, is that Titus sought to present the Flavians as the legitimate successors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Proof came through the issuing of a series of restoration coins of previous emperors, the most popular being Augustus and Claudius. In A.D. 80 Titus also set out to establish an imperial cult in honor of Vespasian. The temple, in which cult (the first that was not connected with the Julio-Claudians) was housed, was completed by Domitian and was known as the Temple of Vespasian and Domitian.
Legitimacy was also sought through various economic measures, which Titus enthusiastically funded. Vast amounts of capital poured into extensive building schemes in Rome, especially the Flavian Amphitheater, popularly known as the Colosseum. In celebration of additions made to the structure, Titus provided a grand 100-day festival, with sea fights staged on an artificial lake, infantry battles, wild beast hunts, and similar activities. He also constructed new imperial baths to the south-east of the Amphitheater and began work on the celebrated Arch of Titus, a memorial to his Jewish victories. Large sums were directed to Italy and the provinces as well, especially for road building. In response to the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, Titus spent large sums to relieve distress in that area; likewise, the imperial purse contributed heavily to rebuilding Rome after a devastating fire destroyed large sections of the city in A.D. 80. As a result of these actions, Titus earned a reputation for generosity and geniality. For these reasons he gained the honourable title of "amor et deliciæ generis humani" (the darling and admiration of the human race). Even so, his financial acumen must not be under-estimated. He left the treasury with a surplus, as he had found it, and dealt promptly and efficiently with costly natural disasters. The Greek historian of the third-century A.D., Cassius Dio, perhaps offered the most accurate and succinct assessment of Titus' economic policy: "In money matters, Titus was frugal and made no unnecessary expenditure." In other areas, the brevity of Titus' reign limits our ability to detect major emphases or trends in policy. As far as can be discerned from the limited evidence, senior officials and amici were well chosen, and his legislative activity tended to focus on popular social measures, with the army as a particular beneficiary in the areas of land ownership, marriage, and testamentary freedom. In the provinces, Titus continued his father's policies by strengthening roads and forts in the East and along the Danube.

Titus died in September, A.D. 81 after only 26 months in office. Suetonius recorded that Titus died on his way to the Sabine country of his ancestors in the same villa as his father. A competing tradition persistently implicated his brother and successor, Domitian, as having had a hand in the emperor's demise, but the evidence is highly contradictory and any wrongdoing is difficult to prove. Domitian himself delivered the funeral eulogy and had Titus deified. He also built several monuments in honor of Titus and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, changing the name of the structure to include his brother's and setting up his cult statue in the Temple itself.

Titus was the beneficiary of considerable intelligence and talent, endowments that were carefully cultivated at every step of his career, from his early education to his role under his father's principate. Cassius Dio suggested that Titus' reputation was enhanced by his early death. It is true that the ancient sources tend to heroicize Titus, yet based upon the evidence, his reign must be considered a positive one. He capably continued the work of his father in establishing the Flavian Dynasty and he maintained a high degree of economic and administrative competence in Italy and beyond. In so doing, he solidified the role of the emperor as paternalistic autocrat, a model that would serve Trajan and his successors well. Titus was used as a model by later emperors, especially those known as the Five Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius).

Copyright (C) 1997, John Donahue.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14746b.htm

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.
Cleisthenes
Titus_Colosseum_Commem_AR_denarius.jpg
711a, Titus, 24 June 79 - 13 September 81 A.D.Titus, 24 June 79 - 13 September 81 A.D. AR denarius, RCV 2512, aVF, struck at Rome, 80 A.D., 17.5mm, 3.4g. Obverse: IMP TITVS CAESAR VESPASIAN AVG PM, laureate head right; Reverse: TRP IX IMP XV COS VIII PP, elephant walking left. Fully legible legends; nice golden toning. This coin was struck in order to commemorate the completion and dedication of the Flavian Amphitheatre (the Colosseum) and its opening games. Very scarce. Ex Incitatus; photo courtesy Incitatus.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 79-81)


John Donahue
College of William and Mary

Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born on December 30, 39 A.D. He was the oldest of the three children of the founder of the Flavian Dynasty, Vespasian. Beginning in the year 70 Titus was named Cæsar and coregent; he was highly educated and a brilliant poet and orator in both Latin and Greek. He won military fame during the Jewish Revolt of 69-70. In April, 70, he appeared before the walls of Jerusalem, and conquered and destroyed the city after a siege of five months. He wished to preserve the Temple, but in the struggle with the Jews who rushed out of it a soldier threw a brand into the building. The siege and taking of the city were accompanied by barbarous cruelties. The next year Titus celebrated his victory by a triumph; to increase the fame of the Flavian dynasty the inscription on the triumphal arch represented the overthrow of the helpless people as a heroic achievement. Titus succeeded his father as Emperor in 79.

Before becoming emperor, tradition records that Titus was feared as the next Nero, a perception that may have developed from his association with Berenice, his alleged heavy-handedness as praetorian prefect, and tales of sexual debauchery. Once in office, however, both emperor and his reign were portrayed in universally positive terms. The suddenness of this transformation raises immediate suspicions, yet it is difficult to know whether the historical tradition is suspect or if Titus was in fact adept at taking off one mask for another. What is clear, however, is that Titus sought to present the Flavians as the legitimate successors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Proof came through the issuing of a series of restoration coins of previous emperors, the most popular being Augustus and Claudius. In A.D. 80 Titus also set out to establish an imperial cult in honor of Vespasian. The temple, in which cult (the first that was not connected with the Julio-Claudians) was housed, was completed by Domitian and was known as the Temple of Vespasian and Domitian.
Legitimacy was also sought through various economic measures, which Titus enthusiastically funded. Vast amounts of capital poured into extensive building schemes in Rome, especially the Flavian Amphitheater, popularly known as the Colosseum. In celebration of additions made to the structure, Titus provided a grand 100-day festival, with sea fights staged on an artificial lake, infantry battles, wild beast hunts, and similar activities. He also constructed new imperial baths to the south-east of the Amphitheater and began work on the celebrated Arch of Titus, a memorial to his Jewish victories. Large sums were directed to Italy and the provinces as well, especially for road building. In response to the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, Titus spent large sums to relieve distress in that area; likewise, the imperial purse contributed heavily to rebuilding Rome after a devastating fire destroyed large sections of the city in A.D. 80. As a result of these actions, Titus earned a reputation for generosity and geniality. For these reasons he gained the honourable title of "amor et deliciæ generis humani" (the darling and admiration of the human race). Even so, his financial acumen must not be under-estimated. He left the treasury with a surplus, as he had found it, and dealt promptly and efficiently with costly natural disasters. The Greek historian of the third-century A.D., Cassius Dio, perhaps offered the most accurate and succinct assessment of Titus' economic policy: "In money matters, Titus was frugal and made no unnecessary expenditure." In other areas, the brevity of Titus' reign limits our ability to detect major emphases or trends in policy. As far as can be discerned from the limited evidence, senior officials and amici were well chosen, and his legislative activity tended to focus on popular social measures, with the army as a particular beneficiary in the areas of land ownership, marriage, and testamentary freedom. In the provinces, Titus continued his father's policies by strengthening roads and forts in the East and along the Danube.

Titus died in September, A.D. 81 after only 26 months in office. Suetonius recorded that Titus died on his way to the Sabine country of his ancestors in the same villa as his father. A competing tradition persistently implicated his brother and successor, Domitian, as having had a hand in the emperor's demise, but the evidence is highly contradictory and any wrongdoing is difficult to prove. Domitian himself delivered the funeral eulogy and had Titus deified. He also built several monuments in honor of Titus and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, changing the name of the structure to include his brother's and setting up his cult statue in the Temple itself.

Titus was the beneficiary of considerable intelligence and talent, endowments that were carefully cultivated at every step of his career, from his early education to his role under his father's principate. Cassius Dio suggested that Titus' reputation was enhanced by his early death. It is true that the ancient sources tend to heroicize Titus, yet based upon the evidence, his reign must be considered a positive one. He capably continued the work of his father in establishing the Flavian Dynasty and he maintained a high degree of economic and administrative competence in Italy and beyond. In so doing, he solidified the role of the emperor as paternalistic autocrat, a model that would serve Trajan and his successors well. Titus was used as a model by later emperors, especially those known as the Five Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius).

Copyright (C) 1997, John Donahue.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14746b.htm

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.
3 commentsCleisthenes
CONSERVATORI-Aegina_Drachm_Turtle~0.png
Aegina Land Tortoise AR Drachm (Testudo Graeca Ibera) Greek (Classical). Islands off Attica (Saronic Gulf), Aegina. AR Drachm (5.0g, 19.5mm, 3h?), struck c. BCE 350-338.
Obv: Land tortoise (prob. testudo graeca ibera) with segmented shell of 13 plates. Rev: Large incuse square with skew pattern, two pellets (astragalos?) in one of five compartments (left, top or bottom?) . Ref: Millbank Period V (404-375 BC), pl. II, 16; HGC 6, 443; SNG Cop 520; SNG Lockett 2004 ("acorn"). Prov: Ex-Colosseum Coin Exchange (Ira Teitelbaum, Hazlet NJ) MBS 59 (22 Nov 1991), Lot 2 [external LINK].
Curtis JJ
AntoSe63-2.jpg
Antoninus Pius, RIC 623, Sestertius of AD 141-144 (Temple of Venus and Roma)Æ sestertius (25.11g, 31.5mm 6h) Rome mint. Struck AD 141-144.
ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P COS III laureate head of Antoninus Pius facing right
ROMAE AETERNAE (around) S C (ex.) ornamented dekastyle temple with the statue of Roma inside; tympanum adorned with high relief statues; quadriga (suggested) at top and statues at each side.
RIC 623 (scarce); Cohen 703 (12 Fr.); BMCRE 1279; Strack 849; Banti (I Grandi Bronzi Imperiali II-3) 336 (4 spec.); Sear(Roman Coins and their Values II) 4212 var. (rev. no figure of Roma); Foss (Roman Historical Coins) 125:24a
ex CNG EAuction 52 (2002)

The temple of Roma was designed by Hadrian (himself) in AD 121 and completed by Antoninus Pius in 141. It stood facing the forum, and was built back to back with the temple of Venus, which faced the Flavian Amphitheater. The building with the two temples was referred to as the Temple of Venus and Roma ("Templum Veneris et Romae"). Hadrian had to have the colossal statue of Nero (Colossus) removed in order to make room for the temples, which were built on the site of the vestibule of Nero's golden house. (He had the Colossus placed near the entrance to the amphitheater, and this provided the nickname, "Colosseum".) The ruins show that both temples consisted of ten colums, and the coins suggest many decorative details.
1 commentsCharles S
Atilia_1.JPG
Atilia 1Atilia 1 (155BC)

Denarius
Ob: head of Roma; X behind
Rev: Victory in biga right with whip in right and reigns in left
SA / R underneath; ROMA in exergue

BMCRR I 744 (earring 3 drops)

Sydenham 377

Crawford 199/1a moneyer is perhaps Sex. Atilius (Serranus = Saranus) cos. 136

Northumberland Tablet II 48 “...of the object of this device, or the advantage it may celebrate,
we know nothing.”

Ex: Colosseum Coin Exchange 2007 said to be a deaccession from Vatican; no tags.
Dark toned with iridescent highlights with slight pitting on obv, larger pit over horses’ heads
1 commentsrennrad12020
Baktria_Menander_SNGANS9-733_bg.jpg
Baktria, Menander. Heroic Bust & Athena Promachos Drachm.Menander. 155-130 BC. AR Drachm (2.48 gm, 17.7mm, 12h). Diademed heroic bust of Menander left, wearing aegis and brandishing spear, seen from behind. ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ. / Athena Promachos standing right, brandishing thunderbolt & aegis, shield at angle. Karosthi legend 𐨨𐨱𐨪𐨗𐨯 𐨟𐨿𐨪𐨟𐨪𐨯 𐨨𐨅𐨣𐨡𐨿𐨪𐨯 Maharajasa tratarasa Menamdrasa (of Great King Menander, the Savior). Monogram HYΠ to right. VF. CNG EA 389 #421. From the Kallman Collection, purchased from Colosseum Coin Exchange. Bopearachchi Série 7B #37-40, BIGR Menander I 16.2; Smithsonian 68-73; BMC 33; HGC 12 #187; MIG 2 Type 224c; SNG ANS 9 #733-738; SNG Cop 7 (Parthia-India) #300-301. 2 commentsAnaximander
rhino_domitien.jpg
Domitian - quadransThis African rhinoceros was the third rhino which had been brought alive to Rome (the first one was an Indian rhino seized by Octavius in Cleopatra's Alexandrian zoo, the second one was seen in Rome later during Augustus' principate. Pliny's mention of a rhino in the games given by Pompey is probably a mistake).
Domitian's rhino could have been the first African rhino in Rome. He has been opposed in the Colosseum to a bear and perhaps also a bull. The fight has been narrated by Martial.
Ginolerhino
Domitian_quadrans_Rhinoceros~0.jpg
Domitian Quadrans (Rhinoceros, RIC II 250) v.1DOMITIAN, AD 81-96
AE Quadrans (17.62mm, 2.58g, 6h)
Struck AD 84/5. Rome mint
Obverse: African rhinoceros, head down, charging left
Reverse: IMP DOMIT AVG GERM around large S C
References: RIC II 250, RCV 2835

A choice specimen, perfectly centered and well-struck from artistic dies. This type recalls a rhinoceros which fought in the Colosseum during Domitian's reign; these coins were likely distributed as largesse to the crowds in attendance on that occasion.
1 commentsCPK
Domitian_Quadrans_Rhino.jpg
Domitian Quadrans RhinoObv.
Rhinoceros advancing left

Rev.
IMP DOMIT AVG GERM
SC


I love this issue for several reasons. First, this little coin represents the only depiction of a rhinoceros in all of Roman numismatics. This fact just intrigues me, it seems so odd that it is such a unique one off appearance. I enjoy the fact that the depiction shows two horns, confirming that it is an African Rhinoceros. This coin led me on a little journey in trying to understand why this animal was depicted, why only once, and why at that particular time. It turns out that this coin was struck to depict a specific rhinoceros, displayed in fights in the Colosseum for the first time.

Martial describes the games in which this took place in his Liber De Spectaculis. The great T.V. Buttrey wrote a fantastic article on this in which he shows that this little coin points to a different date for these games. I dare you to read this article and not want to get one of these coins!

Domitian, the Rhinoceros, and the Date of Martial's Liber' De Spectaculis by T.V. Buttrey

http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/129/1291956404.pdf
3 commentsancientdave
Domitian,_13_September_81_-_18_September_96_A_D_.jpg
Domitian, 13 September 81 - 18 September 96 A.D.Silver denarius, RIC II, part 1, 773; BMCRE II 226; BnF III 203; RSC II 286; Hunter I -; cf. SRCV I 2736 (TR P XII), VF, well centered, toned, reverse center a little weak, Rome mint, weight 3.310g, maximum diameter 19.2mm, die axis 180o, 1 Jan - 13 Sep 95 A.D.; obverse IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM P M TR P XIIII, laureate head right; reverse IMP XXII COS XVII CENS P P P, Minerva standing left, helmeted and draped, inverted spear vertical before her in her right hand, her left hand on hip.

In 95 A.D., Domitian had several senators and ex-consuls executed out of paranoid fears that they were plotting to kill him. Manius Acilius Glabrio belonged to one of the noblest families of Rome and had been consul in 91 (conjointly with Trajan, who would later become emperor). Domitian ordered him to descend into the Colosseum arena to fight a huge lion. Glabrio slew the animal, exciting the crowd, but Domitian still banished him and later put him to death on some false pretext. After his death, his body was brought to Rome, and buried on the Via Salaria, in the catacomb of Priscilla. Xiphilinus, speaking of the executions of 95 A.D., says that some members of the imperial family and other persons of importance were condemned for atheism; they had embraced the Christian faith.

From The Sam Mansourati Collection.
Given as a souvenir to a very dear friend and a Bible Teacher Mr. John DelRicci . (10/13/2017)
Sam
Domias01-2.jpg
Domitian, RIC 493, As of AD 86 (Moneta)Æ As ((10.2g, Ø 26-28mm, 6hh), Rome, AD 86
Obv.: IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM.COS XII CENS PER P P, laureate head right, aegis
Rev.: MONETA AVGVSTI (around) S C (field), Moneta standing left, holding scales right and cornucopiae left.
RIC II,1:493; Cohen 327; Foss(Roman Historical Coins) 92/25

According to Foss, this type was issued on the occasion of the establishment of a new site near the Colosseum for the Roman mint in 84, to replace that in the temple of Juno Moneta which was destroyed by fire shortly before; it is the first appearance of Moneta Augusti.
Charles S
Portus_Traiani-2.jpg
HARBOUR, TRAJAN, AE Sestertius (Portus Trajani)Portus Trajani
Æ Sestertius (26.66g, Ø35mm, 6h). Rome mint. Struck AD 104-111.
Obv.: IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS V P P laureate draped bust of Trajan facing right.
Rev.: (PORTVM TRAIANI around, S C in ex.), Basin of Trajan's harbour (Portus Traiani), near Ostia, surrounded by warehouses, ships in centre.
RIC 471 (R2); Cohen 305; BMC 770A; Foss (Roman Historical Coins) 104:59
ex Jean Elsen Auction 95; ex coll. A. Senden: "L'architecture des monnaies Romaines".

Due to the vulnarability of Portus Claudii, witness the events of 62 AD when a violent storm destroyed some 200 ships in the port, Trajan built a second one farther inland behind the port of Claudius. The work was carried out in the years 100-112 AD, and included improvements of the Claudian harbour. It was a hexagonal basin enclosing an area of 39 hectares, and communicating by canals with the harbour of Claudius, with the Tiber directly, and with the sea. The capacity of the harbour was much enlarged, and many new warehouses were built around it, remains of which may still be seen: The fineness of the brickwork of which they are built is remarkable. The sides of the hexagonal basin were over 350 m, the maximum diameter more than 700 m., and 5m deep. The bottom was covered with stones, at the north end gradually sloping upwards, to reach a depth of only one meter at the edge of the basin.

The basin could contain more than 100 ships that did not moor alongside the quays, but at a straight angle. It was surrounded by a few wide treads (total width c. 6 m.). On the quays was a wall, with five narrow doorways (1.80) on each side of the hexagon. The doorways are too narrow for wagons. Apparently the goods were unloaded and carried by slaves. This can also be seen on several reliefs and mosaics. The wall facilitated the control of the flow of goods, for the Customs Service and the levying of import duties (the portorium).

The hexagon may have been designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, the architect of Trajan's Market in Rome. No other harbours are known with this shape, suggesting that it was chosen not only for practical purposes, but also for aesthetic reasons.

Portus was the main port of ancient Rome for more than 500 years and provided a conduit for everything from glass, ceramics, marble and slaves to wild animals caught in Africa and shipped to Rome for spectacles in the Colosseum.
3 commentsCharles S
4045949.jpg
Italy, Capua - AmphitheatreThe second largest amphitheatre ... arena is only 10m shorter and 8m narrower than colosseumJ. B.
arch of constantine.jpg
Italy, Rome, Arch of ConstantineView of the arch of Constantine from the top of the Colosseum2 commentsJay GT4
01_IMG_0860q.JPG
Italy, Rome, Arch of Constantine with Colosseum in the background2 commentsJ. B.
IMG_0886wp.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseumbuilt between 70 AD and 80 AD1 commentsJ. B.
IMG_1424wp.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum50000 spectators

It has been estimated that about 500000 people and over a million wild animals died in the Colosseum games.
J. B.
IMG_1496wp.jpg
Italy, Rome, ColosseumJ. B.
IMG_3344wp.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum3 commentsJ. B.
02_IMG_3353q.JPG
Italy, Rome, ColosseumJ. B.
03_IMG_1373q.JPG
Italy, Rome, Colosseumhall inside colloseumJ. B.
03_IMG_1458q.JPG
Italy, Rome, ColosseumJ. B.
Panoramic 2.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum 1Posted by Strength And Honour.
Photo taken by my friend Hebe.
1 comments
Colosseum-1b.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum 2Posted by Strength And Honour.
Photo taken by my friend Hebe.
Colosseum-2b.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum 3Posted by Strength And Honour.
Photo taken by my friend Hebe.
Colosseum-4b.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum 4Posted by Strength And Honour.
Photo taken by my friend Hebe.
arch.JPG
Italy, Rome, Colosseum Arch of ConstantineOne of my favorite photos I took in Rome, a view of the Arch of Constantine as seen looking out from inside the Colosseum. 1 commentsfordicus
02_IMG_0898q.JPG
Italy, Rome, Colosseum with arch of Constantine in the backgroundJ. B.
IMG_2619_2.jpg
Italy, Rome, Colosseum, Flavian AmphitheatreHere's yet another pic of the famous Roman landmark, only this time, I used the "Pano" feature on my iPhone, allowing the entire northern half to be viewed. Mark Z
IMG_0728[1].JPG
Italy, Rome, Colosseum, Inside -- May, 2011pitbull
Panoramic 1.jpg
Italy, Rome, View from the ColosseumOn the left the Palatine Hill, the Via Sacra and Titus' Arch.
On the right Maxentius' Basilica
Posted by Strength And Honour.
Photo taken by my friend Hebe.
venus_and_rome.jpg
Italy, The Temple of Venus and Rome, Velian Hill, RomeThought to have been the largest temple in Ancient Rome, the temple of Venus and Rome is located on the Velian Hill, between the eastern edge of the Forum Romanum and the Colosseum. It's built partially on the site of Nero's Domus Aureus. It was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix ("Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune") and Roma Aeterna ("Eternal Rome"). The amount of porphyry in this temple was notable, even for Rome.Ron C2
Italy- Rome- Coliseum constructed by Flavius and seen from outside~0.jpg
Italy- Rome- Coliseum constructed by Flavius and seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.

Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.

The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.

History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.

Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.

The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.

Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).

A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.

Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).

The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote

Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.

In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.

In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.

Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outside~0.jpg
Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.

Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.

The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.

History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.

Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.

The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.

Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).

A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.

Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).

The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote

Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.

In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.

In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.

Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outside 1~0.jpg
Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outside 1Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.

Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.

The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.

History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.

Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.

The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.

Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).

A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.

Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).

The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote

Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.

In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.

In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.

Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- Forum Romanum and the temple of Venus and Roma.jpg
Italy- Rome- Forum Romanum and the temple of Venus and RomaThe Temple of Venus and Roma (Templum Veneris et Romae in Latin) was the largest temple in Ancient Rome. It was located at the far east side of the Forum Romanum, near the Colosseum. It was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix (Venus the Happy) and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome). The designer was emperor Hadrian. Construction works on the temple started in 121 AD and though it was inaugurated by Hadrian in 135 AD, the building was finished in 141 AD under Antonius Pius.

The building measured 110 meters in length and 53 meters in width. It was placed on a stage measuring 145 meters in length and 100 meters in width. The temple itself consisted of 2 main chambers (cellae), where the cult statue of the god was, in this case the statues of Venus, the goddess of love, and Roma, the goddess of Rome, both of them seated on a throne. The cellae were placed symmetrically back-to-back. Roma's cella was faced west, looking out over the Forum Romanum, Venus' cella was faced east, looking out over the Colosseum. Each cella had its own line of 4 columns at the entrance. At the west and east sides of the temple (the short sides), 10 white columns were placed and at the south and north sides of the temple (the long sides) 18 white columns were placed. All of these columns measured 1.8 meters in width, making the temple very imposing to see.

Within Venus' cella, there was another altar where newly wed couples could make sacrifices. Right next to this altar stood gigantic, silver statues of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina.

In order to build the temple, which is placed on the remains of Nero's Domus Aurea, the statue of Nero, the Colossus, had to be moved. They placed it near the amphitheatre, which became known as the Colosseum shortly afterwards.

Hadrian's most brilliant architect, Apollodorus, wasn't impressed by his emperor's architectural skills. He made a scornful remark on the size of the statues within the cellae. He said that they'd surely hurt their heads if they tried to stand up from their thrones. He was banned and executed not long after this.

A serious fire in 307 AD caused major damage to the temple. It was restored by emperor Maxentius. Unfortunately, a gigantic earthquake at the beginning of the 9th century destroyed the temple once again. Around 850 though, Pope Leo IV ordered the building of a new church, the Santa Maria Nova, on the ruins of the temple. After a major rebuilding in 1612 this church was renamed the Santa Francesca Romana. This church has incorporated Roma's cella as the belltower.

Over the years, most of the columns around the temple have disappeared. Nowadays, only a few are still standing where they used to be, others that have gone missing have been replaced by buxus trees.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_and_Roma"
Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- Part of the city wall.jpg
Italy- Rome- Part of the city wallRome is the city in the world with the longest set of ancient walls still partly standing.
This unique relic of roman history, though, is somewhat neglected by the thousands of tourist who visit the city every day: very few of them pay attention to these massive structures, as their interest is mainly caught by famous buildings and sites such as the Roman Forum, the Pantheon, or the Colosseum.
Certainly less beautiful than these gems, the walls proved more useful to the city than any other well-known monument or building. And still today they stand as an important memory of the city's ancient boundaries.

The several restoration works carried out through the ages, in order to keep them strong and steady, give reason for the good state of preservation of the set of walls built in the 3rd century AD: unlike other ancient buildings, they mantained their original function until the end of the 1800s. Many of the original gates are still in place, as well, and some of them have witnessed important historical facts.
Besides their importance during wartime, the city walls enabled the local authorities to keep under control the many people who every day entered or left Rome, as the only way in or out was through the gates: the doors were usually kept under sentry during daylight, and closed after dusk. And since a tax was usually imposed on people and goods entering the city, the gates yielded also a considerable income for the municipality.
Since its foundation, Rome has always adopted defensive means, to prevent the several populations surrounding the original nucleus from invading the city.
They are not one single structure, but several walls belonging to many periods. They were built with different techniques, according to the different weapons they had to face, from early enemies' stones, to catapults, to more powerful cannon balls.
Each of them will be therefore dealt with separately, as individual structures.
All of them are conventionally named after the ruler (king, emperor or pope) who had them built.
ROMULUS' WALLS
We know little about the very first defensive structures that protected Rome's original nucleus, over 2700 years ago; the top of two adjoining hills, the Capitolium and the Palatine, was enclosed by two separate walls; the one on the Palatine was probably rebuilt over a pre-roman structure, and protected Romulus's House, claimed to be the dwelling site of the mythical founder and first king of Rome.
Only few visible traces, both of the Palatine's and of the Capitolium's wall, now survive (the latter is shown on the left). Therefore, these are the only walls not dealt with by the following pages.
SERVIAN WALLS
(or REPUBLICAN WALLS)
They are named after Rome's sixth king Servius Tullius: by tradition, he was the first ruler to order the construction of an early defensive structure around the city. Also in this case it is impossible to state a precise date. According to reliable sources, by the 6th century BC the city of Rome could indeed rely on some sort of protection; nevertheless, there is enough proof that an actual wall was not built until the late 4th century BC (during Rome's republic, whence the other name). And a further extension, beyond the left banks of the river Tiber up to the top of the Janiculum hill, was built two centuries later.
Therefore, the evolution of this set of walls must have been rather complicated.The older defensive technique probably consisted of a sort of mound dug in the ground; the earth coming from the latter was simply used to make a long heap on the inside, as a further protection.
Later in time, a real set of walls was built in place of this primitive boundary. But along the north-eastern part of its perimeter, a deep mound with earth and stones piled by the inner base of the wall was still in use: this structure was called an agger (from the Latin ad gerere, "to bring, move towards").
The actual wall was built according to the dry-stone technique, i.e. without any mortar, large blocks were piled one on top of the other, in multiple rows. The porous stone is tufa (which in Rome was used for the making of buildings up to the early 1930s!).
Unfortunately, of these walls no more than a few fragments scattered in various parts of the city is now left.
Further data based on historical sources and archaeological excavations have enabled to define more or less precisely their full perimeter: by the end of the 4th century BC, the city boundaries enclosed the famous seven hills, or Septimontium, over which the city was originally built: the Capitolium and the Palatine (i.e. the early nucleus), the Aventine, the Esquiline, the Quirinal, the Viminal and the Coelian.
Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- Part of the city wall 2.jpg
Italy- Rome- Part of the city wall 2Rome is the city in the world with the longest set of ancient walls still partly standing.
This unique relic of roman history, though, is somewhat neglected by the thousands of tourist who visit the city every day: very few of them pay attention to these massive structures, as their interest is mainly caught by famous buildings and sites such as the Roman Forum, the Pantheon, or the Colosseum.
Certainly less beautiful than these gems, the walls proved more useful to the city than any other well-known monument or building. And still today they stand as an important memory of the city's ancient boundaries.

The several restoration works carried out through the ages, in order to keep them strong and steady, give reason for the good state of preservation of the set of walls built in the 3rd century AD: unlike other ancient buildings, they mantained their original function until the end of the 1800s. Many of the original gates are still in place, as well, and some of them have witnessed important historical facts.
Besides their importance during wartime, the city walls enabled the local authorities to keep under control the many people who every day entered or left Rome, as the only way in or out was through the gates: the doors were usually kept under sentry during daylight, and closed after dusk. And since a tax was usually imposed on people and goods entering the city, the gates yielded also a considerable income for the municipality.
Since its foundation, Rome has always adopted defensive means, to prevent the several populations surrounding the original nucleus from invading the city.
They are not one single structure, but several walls belonging to many periods. They were built with different techniques, according to the different weapons they had to face, from early enemies' stones, to catapults, to more powerful cannon balls.
Each of them will be therefore dealt with separately, as individual structures.
All of them are conventionally named after the ruler (king, emperor or pope) who had them built.
ROMULUS' WALLS
We know little about the very first defensive structures that protected Rome's original nucleus, over 2700 years ago; the top of two adjoining hills, the Capitolium and the Palatine, was enclosed by two separate walls; the one on the Palatine was probably rebuilt over a pre-roman structure, and protected Romulus's House, claimed to be the dwelling site of the mythical founder and first king of Rome.
Only few visible traces, both of the Palatine's and of the Capitolium's wall, now survive (the latter is shown on the left). Therefore, these are the only walls not dealt with by the following pages.
SERVIAN WALLS
(or REPUBLICAN WALLS)
They are named after Rome's sixth king Servius Tullius: by tradition, he was the first ruler to order the construction of an early defensive structure around the city. Also in this case it is impossible to state a precise date. According to reliable sources, by the 6th century BC the city of Rome could indeed rely on some sort of protection; nevertheless, there is enough proof that an actual wall was not built until the late 4th century BC (during Rome's republic, whence the other name). And a further extension, beyond the left banks of the river Tiber up to the top of the Janiculum hill, was built two centuries later.
Therefore, the evolution of this set of walls must have been rather complicated.The older defensive technique probably consisted of a sort of mound dug in the ground; the earth coming from the latter was simply used to make a long heap on the inside, as a further protection.
Later in time, a real set of walls was built in place of this primitive boundary. But along the north-eastern part of its perimeter, a deep mound with earth and stones piled by the inner base of the wall was still in use: this structure was called an agger (from the Latin ad gerere, "to bring, move towards").
The actual wall was built according to the dry-stone technique, i.e. without any mortar, large blocks were piled one on top of the other, in multiple rows. The porous stone is tufa (which in Rome was used for the making of buildings up to the early 1930s!).
Unfortunately, of these walls no more than a few fragments scattered in various parts of the city is now left.
Further data based on historical sources and archaeological excavations have enabled to define more or less precisely their full perimeter: by the end of the 4th century BC, the city boundaries enclosed the famous seven hills, or Septimontium, over which the city was originally built: the Capitolium and the Palatine (i.e. the early nucleus), the Aventine, the Esquiline, the Quirinal, the Viminal and the Coelian.
Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- The Arch of Constantine The Great.jpg
Italy- Rome- The Arch of Constantine The GreatArch of Constantine
The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was erected to commemorate Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312 AD. Dedicated in 315 AD, it is the latest of the extant triumphal arches in Rome, from which it differs by the extensive re-use of parts of earlier buildings.

General Description
The arch is 21 m high, 25.7 m wide and 7.4 m deep. It has three archways, the central one being 11.5 m high and 6.5 m wide, the lateral archways 7.4 m by 3.4 m each. The lower part of the monument is built of marble blocks, the top (called attic) is brickwork revetted with marble. A staircase formed in the thickness of the arch is entered from a door at some height from the ground, in the end towards the Palatine Hill. The general design with a main part structured by detached columns and an attic with the main inscription above is modelled after the example of the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Forum Romanum. It has been suggested that the lower part of the arch is re-used from an older monument, probably from the times of the emperor Hadrian (Conforto et al., 2001; for a defence of the view that the whole arch was constructed in the 4th century, see Pensabene & Panella). The arch spans the Via Triumphalis, the way taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph. This route started at the Campus Martius, led through the Circus Maximus and around the Palatine Hill; immediately after the Arch of Constantine, the procession would turn left and march along the Via Sacra to the Forum Romanum and on to the Capitoline Hill, passing both the Arches of Titus and Septimius Severus. During the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was incorporated into one of the family strongholds of ancient Rome. Works of restoration were first carried out in the 18th century; the last excavations have taken place in the late 1990s, just before the Great Jubilee of 2000.

Decoration
The decoration of the arch heavily uses parts of older monuments, which are given a new meaning in the context of the Constantinian building. As it celebrates the victory of Constantine, the new "historic" friezes illustrating his campaign in Italy convey the central meaning: the praise of the emperor, both in battle and in his civilian duties. The other imagery supports this purpose: decoration taken from the "golden times" of the Empire under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius places Constantine next to these "good emperors", and the content of the pieces evokes images of the victorious and pious ruler. Another explanation given for the re-use is the short time between the start of construction (late 312 at the earliest) and the dedication (summer 315), so the architects used existing artwork to make up for the lack of time to create new one. As yet another possible reason, it has often been suggested that the Romans of the 4th century lacked the artistic skill to produce acceptable artwork and therefore plundered the ancient buildings to adorn their contemporary monuments. This interpretation has become less prominent in more recent times, as the art of Late Antiquity has been appreciated in its own right. It is, of course, possible that a combination of two or all three of those explanations are correct, as they are not mutually exclusive.

Attic
Above the middle archway, the main inscription (see below) takes the most prominent place of the attic. It is identical on both sides of the arch. Flanking the inscription on both sides, there are pairs of relief panels above the minor archways, 8 in total. They were taken from an unknown monument erected in honour of Marcus Aurelius, and show (north side, left to right) the emperor's return to Rome after the campaign (adventus), the emperor leaving the city and saluted by a personification of the Via Flaminia, the emperor distributing money among the people (largitio), the emperor interrogating a German prisoner, (south side, left to right) a captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor, a similar scene with other prisoners, the emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio), and the emperor sacrificing pig, sheep and bull. Together with three panels now in the Capitoline Museum, the reliefs were probably taken from a triumphal monument commemorating Marcus Aurelius' war against the Sarmatians from 169 - 175, which ended with his triumphant return in 176. On the largitio panel, the figure of Marcus Aurelius' son Commodus has been eradicated after the latter's damnatio memoriae. On top of each of the columns stand marble statues of Dacian prisoners from the times of Trajan, probably taken from the Forum of Trajan. From the same time date the two large (3 m high) panels decorating the attic on the small sides of the arch, showing scenes from the emperor's Dacian Wars. Together with the two reliefs on the inside of the central archway, they came from a large frieze celebrating the Dacian victory. The original place of this frieze was either the Forum of Trajan, as well, or the barracks of the emperor's horse guard on the Caelius.

Main Section
The general layout of the main facade is identical on both sides of the arch. It is divided by four columns of Corinthian order made of Numidian yellow marble (giallo antico), one of which has been transferred into the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano and was replaced by a white marble column. The columns stand on bases showing victory figures on front, and captured barbarians and Roman soldiers on the sides. The spandrels of the main archway are decorated with reliefs depicting victory figures with trophies, those of the smaller archways show river gods. Column bases and spandrel reliefs are from the times of Constantine. Above each lateral archway are pairs of round reliefs dated to the times of emperor Hadrian. They display scenes of hunting and sacrificing: (north side, left to right) hunt of a boar, sacrifice to Apollo, hunt of a lion, sacrifice to Hercules, (south side, left to right) departure for the hunt, sacrifice to Silvanus, hunt of a bear, sacrifice to Diana. The head of the emperor (originally Hadrian) has been reworked in all medaillons: on the north side, into Constantine in the hunting scenes and into Licinius or Constantius I in the sacrifice scenes; on the south side, vice versa. The reliefs, c. 2 m in diameter, were framed in porphyry; this framing is only extant on the right side of the northern facade. Similar medaillons, this time of Constantinian origin, are placed on the small sides of the arch; on the eastern side, showing the Sun rising, and on the western side, the Moon, both on chariots. The main piece from the time of Constantine is the "historical" relief frieze running around the monument under the round panels, one strip above each lateral archway and at the small sides of the arch. These reliefs depict scenes from the Italian campaign of Constantine against Maxentius which was the reason for the construction of the monument. The frieze starts at the western side with the "Departure from Milan". It continues on the southern, "outward" looking face, with the siege of a city, probably Verona, which was of great importance to the war in Northern Italy; also on that face, the Battle of Milvian Bridge with Constantine's army victorious and the enemy drowning in the river Tiber. On the eastern side, Constantine and his army enter Rome; the artist here has avoided to use the imagery of the triumph, as Constantine probably did not want to be shown triumphant over the Eternal City. On the northern face, looking "towards" the city, two strips with the emperor's actions after taking possession of Rome: Constantine speaking to the citizens on the Forum Romanum, and distributing money to the people.

Inner Sides of the Archways
In the central archway, there is one of the large panels of Trajan's Dacian War on either wall. Inside the lateral archways, eight portraits busts (two on each wall), destroyed to such an extent that it is not possible to identify them any more.

Inscriptions
The main inscription reads:

IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO · P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R · QVOD · INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS · MENTIS · MAGNITVDINE · CVM · EXERCITV · SVO · TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS · FACTIONE · VNO · TEMPORE · IVSTIS · REM-PUBLICAM · VLTVS · EST · ARMIS · ARCVM · TRIVMPHIS · INSIGNEM · DICAVIT

Which means in English:

To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus: because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs.

The words instinctu divinitatis ("inspired by the divine") have been much commented. They are usually read as sign of Constantine's shifting religious affiliation: The Christian tradition, most notably Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, relate the story of a vision of the Christian god to Constantine during the campaign, and that he was victorious in the sign of the cross at the Milvian Bridge. The official documents (esp. coins) still prominently display the Sun God until 324 AD, while Constantine started to support the Christian church from 312 on. In this situation, the vague wording of the inscription can be seen as the attempt to please all possible readers, being deliberately ambiguous, and acceptable to both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the vanquished enemy is not mentioned by name, but only referred to as "the tyrant", drawing on the notion of the rightful killing of a tyrannical ruler; together with the image of the "just war", it serves as justification of Constantine's civil war against his co-emperor Maxentius.

Two short inscriptions on the inside of the central archway transport a similar message: Constantine came not as conqueror, but freed Rome from occupation:

LIBERATORI VRBIS (liberator of the city) - FUNDATORI QVIETIS (founder of peace)

Over each of the small archways, inscriptions read:

VOTIS X - VOTIS XX SIC X - SIC XX

They give a hint on the date of the arch: "Solemn vows for the 10th anniversary - for the 20th anniversary" and "as for the 10th, so for the 20th anniversary". Both refer to Constantine's decennalia, i.e. the 10th anniversary of his reign (counted from 306), which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315 AD. It can be assumed that the arch honouring his victory was inaugurated during his stay in the city.




Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- The Arch of Vespasian.jpg
Italy- Rome- The Arch of TitoThe Arch of Titus (Arcus Titi) is a triumphal arch that commemorates the victory of the emperors Vespasian and Titus in Judea in 70 CE, which lead to the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Jewish temple there, and the triumphal procession the two held in Rome in 71 CE. It is situated at the E. entrance to the Forum Romanum, on the Via Sacra, south of the Temple of Amor and Roma, close to the Colosseum.

The arch was definitely erected sometimes after after the death of Titus in 81 CE, since Titus is referred to as Divus in the inscription. The deification of an emperor only happened posthumously after decision by the senate. It was most probably erected by emperor Domitian who succeeded his brother Titus in 81 CE, but it has also been suggested that it was built later, by Trajan, because of stylistic similarities with the Arch of Trajan at Benevento.

The Arch of Titus is a single arch, measuring 15.4m in height, 13.5m in width and 4.75m in depth, originally constructed entirely in Pantelic marble, with four semi-columns on each side. The external decorations include figures of Victoria with trophies on the spandrels and images of Roma and the Genius of Rome on the two keystones.

The inscription on the E. side is the original dedication of the arch by the senate. It reads:

Senatus
Populusque Romanus
divo Tito divo Vespasiani f(ilio)
Vespasiano Augusto

The senate
and people of Rome
to the divine Titus, son of the divine Vespasian,
Vespasianus Augustus

The inside the archway the monument is decorated with reliefs in marble. The S. side shows the beginning of the triumphal entry into Rome of the victorious emperor and his troops. The soldiers, walking left to right, are carrying the spoils of war, which include the seven armed candelabrum and the silver trumpets from the temple of Jerusalem. The signs carried by some soldiers displayed the names of the conquered cities and people. To the right the procession is entering the city through the Porta Triumphalis.

The N. side of the arch is decorated with a relief of the emperor in the triumphal procession. The emperor is riding a quadriga, which is lead by the goddess Roma, and he is crowned by Victoria flying above him. The lictors are walking in front of the chariot with their long ceremonial axes. After the emperor follow as a young man, who represents the Roman people, and an older man in toga, representing the senate. In the middle, under the vault a small relief shows the apotheosis of Titus, flying to the heavens on the back of an eagle.
Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- The arch of Tito and inside the arches.jpg
Italy- Rome- The arch of Tito and inside the archesThe Arch of Titus (Arcus Titi) is a triumphal arch that commemorates the victory of the emperors Vespasian and Titus in Judea in 70 CE, which lead to the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Jewish temple there, and the triumphal procession the two held in Rome in 71 CE. It is situated at the E. entrance to the Forum Romanum, on the Via Sacra, south of the Temple of Amor and Roma, close to the Colosseum.

The arch was definitely erected sometimes after after the death of Titus in 81 CE, since Titus is referred to as Divus in the inscription. The deification of an emperor only happened posthumously after decision by the senate. It was most probably erected by emperor Domitian who succeeded his brother Titus in 81 CE, but it has also been suggested that it was built later, by Trajan, because of stylistic similarities with the Arch of Trajan at Benevento.

The Arch of Titus is a single arch, measuring 15.4m in height, 13.5m in width and 4.75m in depth, originally constructed entirely in Pantelic marble, with four semi-columns on each side. The external decorations include figures of Victoria with trophies on the spandrels and images of Roma and the Genius of Rome on the two keystones.

The inscription on the E. side is the original dedication of the arch by the senate. It reads:

Senatus
Populusque Romanus
divo Tito divo Vespasiani f(ilio)
Vespasiano Augusto

The senate
and people of Rome
to the divine Titus, son of the divine Vespasian,
Vespasianus Augustus

The inside the archway the monument is decorated with reliefs in marble. The S. side shows the beginning of the triumphal entry into Rome of the victorious emperor and his troops. The soldiers, walking left to right, are carrying the spoils of war, which include the seven armed candelabrum and the silver trumpets from the temple of Jerusalem. The signs carried by some soldiers displayed the names of the conquered cities and people. To the right the procession is entering the city through the Porta Triumphalis.

The N. side of the arch is decorated with a relief of the emperor in the triumphal procession. The emperor is riding a quadriga, which is lead by the goddess Roma, and he is crowned by Victoria flying above him. The lictors are walking in front of the chariot with their long ceremonial axes. After the emperor follow as a young man, who represents the Roman people, and an older man in toga, representing the senate. In the middle, under the vault a small relief shows the apotheosis of Titus, flying to the heavens on the back of an eagle.
Peter Wissing
Italy- Rome- The entrance to Forum and the arch of Tito.jpg
Italy- Rome- The entrance to Forum and the arch of TitoThe Arch of Titus (Arcus Titi) is a triumphal arch that commemorates the victory of the emperors Vespasian and Titus in Judea in 70 CE, which lead to the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Jewish temple there, and the triumphal procession the two held in Rome in 71 CE. It is situated at the E. entrance to the Forum Romanum, on the Via Sacra, south of the Temple of Amor and Roma, close to the Colosseum.

The arch was definitely erected sometimes after after the death of Titus in 81 CE, since Titus is referred to as Divus in the inscription. The deification of an emperor only happened posthumously after decision by the senate. It was most probably erected by emperor Domitian who succeeded his brother Titus in 81 CE, but it has also been suggested that it was built later, by Trajan, because of stylistic similarities with the Arch of Trajan at Benevento.

The Arch of Titus is a single arch, measuring 15.4m in height, 13.5m in width and 4.75m in depth, originally constructed entirely in Pantelic marble, with four semi-columns on each side. The external decorations include figures of Victoria with trophies on the spandrels and images of Roma and the Genius of Rome on the two keystones.

The inscription on the E. side is the original dedication of the arch by the senate. It reads:

Senatus
Populusque Romanus
divo Tito divo Vespasiani f(ilio)
Vespasiano Augusto

The senate
and people of Rome
to the divine Titus, son of the divine Vespasian,
Vespasianus Augustus

The inside the archway the monument is decorated with reliefs in marble. The S. side shows the beginning of the triumphal entry into Rome of the victorious emperor and his troops. The soldiers, walking left to right, are carrying the spoils of war, which include the seven armed candelabrum and the silver trumpets from the temple of Jerusalem. The signs carried by some soldiers displayed the names of the conquered cities and people. To the right the procession is entering the city through the Porta Triumphalis.

The N. side of the arch is decorated with a relief of the emperor in the triumphal procession. The emperor is riding a quadriga, which is lead by the goddess Roma, and he is crowned by Victoria flying above him. The lictors are walking in front of the chariot with their long ceremonial axes. After the emperor follow as a young man, who represents the Roman people, and an older man in toga, representing the senate. In the middle, under the vault a small relief shows the apotheosis of Titus, flying to the heavens on the back of an eagle.

Peter Wissing
CCE_MBS_59_28199129_Malter_BCD_Library.jpg
Literature, COLOSSEUM COIN EXCHANGE FPL 59, 22 Nov 1991 (Ex BCD Library Duplicates, Malloy Library) Numismatic Literature (Sale Catalogs). COLOSSEUM COIN EXCHANGE (Ira Teitelbaum, Hazlet, NJ) Fixed Price List 59 + MBS 91, 22 Nov 1991.
304 Ancient coins (500 lots, incl. antiquities), f. ill. on 13 b&w pl. of coins (36 pl. total), 11 pp. (ancient coins desc. on pp. 1-6). “Special” FPL is a small offering of Sumerian bead necklaces ($19-25 + $4 S&H).
References: Fitzwilliam, A-D [LINK]; not in Gengerke [LINK].
Provenance: Ex BCD Library; ex library of Joel L. Malter (1931-2006), addressed to Malter Galleries (Encino, CA), postmarked 13 October 1991 AND 6 November; possibly ex Malter Numismatic Library sale (Malter Auction 88, 4-5 June 2006, incl. >50 boxes of mixed sale catalogs, at least 7 w/ miscellaneous material).
Notes: Joel Malter’s numismatic library was one of his great lifelong achievements, and its sale (held at his private residence!) generated tremendous excitement and record prices. He died the following day. See e-Sylum (Numismatic Bibliomania Society) article: [LINK].
This was the first auction that I ever bid in. I won Lot 2, Aegina Drachm: [Gallery LINK]. But lost my copy of the catalog. Luckily I found this one in the 2022 sale of BCD Library Duplicates (Jacquier 50, Lot 1041, part).
Curtis JJ
8FdNj3SJJE4r5KcW6X7a9fRn96eDSZ.jpg
Marcus Aurelius, 161 - 180 AD, AE As, Galley with RowersMarcus Aurelius, 161 - 180 AD
AE As, Rome Mint, 26mm, 8.92 grams
Obverse: M ANTONINVS AVG GER-M SARM TR[P X]XXI, laureate head of Marcus Aurelius right.
Reverse: FELICI/TATI AVG/P P in three lines above, [C]OS III in exergue, [S] C across lower field, galley rowed right by three oarsmen; at stern, Neptune standing right, foot on rock, holding trident and aplustre.
RIC 1195 // BMC 1618 // Cohen 191
Ex Colosseum Coin Exchange 66 (23 November 1992), 265. _8008 sold
Antonivs Protti
Memmia_1.JPG
Memmia 1Memmia 1 (109BC) moneyer L. Memmius

Denarius
Ob: male head right wearing oak wreath; below chin *
Rev: Dioscuri standing facing each holding spear and bridle of his horse; above the head
of each star; in exergue L. MEMMI

BMCRR: II 643

Sydenham: 558

Crawford: 304/1

Northumberland Tablet X 27 & 28

“The Memmii are not noticed by history till B.C. 173 (? Does Smyth mean 118-114BC) ; yet from the epoch mentioned- the Jugurthine War- they held frequent tribunates of the Plebs, although C. Memmius, the impeacher, was beaten to death with bludgeons by the mob of Saturninus.” (99BC) So much for concordia ordinis.

For the epithet Mordax, I like biter or stinger better than “impeacher” as W. Smyth wrote.
OLD #1 prone to bite, snappish- Mordax Memmius Cicero De Orat 2.240.

In the same ship race episode of the funeral games as Sergia etiology: Aeneid V 117

mox Italus Mnestheus, genus a quo nomine Memmi

Soon the Italian Mnestheus, from whose name sprung the race of Memmii

This etiological (+ etymological; meminisse) name association typical of
Virgil. Too bad no Cluentia moneyer to get the last Virgilian reference in
from the race!

Ex: Colosseum Coin Exchange 2007 dusty grayish tone, old scratch on obv cheek
2 commentsrennrad12020
Memmia_2.JPG
Memmia 2Memmia 2 (106BC) moneyer L. Memmius Galeria

Serratus Denarius
Ob: laureate head of Saturn left harpa and ROMA behind, under chin ∙ then under G
Rev: Venus in slow biga right holding scepter and reigns; cupid flies above with wreath; in exergue
L. MEMMI (ME ligature)
GAL

BMCRR I 1336

Sydenham 574

Crawford: 313/1b

Ex: Colosseum Coin Exchange 2007

Crawford: The use of Venus as a coin type is to draw attention to the Memmii as one of the familiae Troianae. Gal(eria) is a tribe name employed to distinguish this (less important) branch of the family. Cf. dedication of Lucretius De Rerum Natura to Venus and Gaius Memmius (praetor 58BC)
1 commentsrennrad12020
markianopolis_elagabal_BMC50.jpg
Moesia inferior, Markianopolis, 26. Elagabal, HrJ (2013) 6.26.05.06 #1Elagabal, AD 218-222
AE 26, 10.1g, 26.35mm, 180°
struck under governor Iulius Antonius Seleucus
obv. AVT KM AVRHLIOC - ANTWNEINOC
bust, draped and cuirassed, seen from behind, laureate, r.
rev. VP.IOVL.ANT.CELE - VKOV MARKIANOPO / LITWN
Demeter, in long chiton and himation, stg. frontal, head l., holding two corn-
ears in outstretched r. hand and leaning with l. hand on sceptre.
ref. a) AMNG I/1, 819 var. (has torch)
b) Varbanov (engl.) 1560 (cites AMNG 819, but writes scepter which can be seen on pic too!)
c) Hristova-Jekov (2013) 6.26.5.6
d) BMC 50
about VF, small scratches on obv.
Pedigree:
ex Colosseum 1997
VF, glossy black-green patina

AMNG has two corn-ears, head of poppy and torch. Here it is doubtless no poppy and a sceptre with knob. But it is Demeter nevertheless.
Jochen
nikopolis_geta_AMNG1641cf_unbekannt.jpg
Moesia inferior, Nikopolis ad Istrum, 22. Geta, HrHJ (2018) 8.22.36.04 (plate coin)Geta as Caesar, AD 198-209
AE 17, 2.3g, 16.91mm, 15°
obv. [L AVR] K - GETAC
Bare head, r.
rev. NIIKOPOL(sic!) - [PROC I]
Homonoia in long garment, mantle over l. arm, stg. frontal, head l., holding cornucopiae in
l. arm and patera in extended r. hand.
ref. a) AMNG I/1, 1641 var. (has NIKOPOL and kalathos)
b) Varbanov (engl.) 3212 var. (same)
c) Hristova/Hoeft/Jekov (2018) No. 8.22.36.4 (plate coin)
F+
Pedigree:
ex Colosseum Coins

The ex. which Pick has seen seems to have been unclear because Pick couldn't identify the object in the hand nor the rev. legend.

Legend error!
Jochen
nikopolis_macrinus_HrHJ(2017)8_23_36_19(rev).jpg
Moesia inferior, Nikopolis ad Istrum, 23. Macrinus, HrHJ (2018) 8.23.36.19 (plate coin)Macrinus, AD 217-218
AE 25, 9.15g, 25.2mm, 0°
struck under Statius Longinus
obv. AVT K M OPELLI. - CEV MAKRINOC
Bust, cuirassed, gorgoneion on breastplate(?), on l. shoulder aegis(?), seen from before,
laureate, r.
rev. VP CTATIOV LONGINOV NIKOPOLITWN PRO
in l. and r. field C I - CT
in ex. RW
Homonoia in long garment and mantle, stg. frontal, looking l., holding in l. arm cornucopiae
and in extended r. hand patera
ref. a) not in AMNG I/1:
cf. AMNG, 1775 (different obv., break in rev. legend)
b) not in Varbanov:
cf. #3569 (different obv.)
c) Hristova/Hoeft/Jekov (2018) No.8.23.36.19 (this coin)
rare, F+, light corrosion
pedigree:
ex Colosseum Coin Exchange

From Forum Ancient Coins, thanks!
Jochen
0070-210np_noir.jpg
Nero, Denarius Rome mint, AD 64/65
NERO CAESAR, laureate head of Nero right
AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS, Nero standing facing, holding branch and victory on globe
3,32 gr
Ref : RCV #1941, Cohen #45, RIC # 47
The following comment, from NFA, auction XX catalog, # 118 :
Nero's coinage reform of A.D. 64 saw a reduction in the weight standard of both the aureus and denarius denominations. A whole new range of reverse types was introduced with an unmistakably imperial flavor, in marked contrast to the senatorial types of the pre-reform coinage. This coin depicts a standing figure of the emperor, wearing the radiate crown of the sun god Sol, holding a branch of peace and a small figure of Victory. An allusion to the settlement of the Parthian question, following Corbulo's successes in Armenia in A.D. 63, seems unmistakable. It is tempting to identify this reverse type with the statue of the sun god, with the facial features of the emperor, erected by Nero in front of his Domus Aurea (Golden House), which was one of the principal features of the reconstruction following the Great Fire of Rome in A.D. 64. The Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) was later erected on the site of the Domus Aurea's ornamental lake, and received its popular name from its close proximity to Nero's statue
7 commentsPotator II
[901a]_NervaAntiochAE26.jpg
Nerva, 18 September 96 - 25 January 98 A.D., Antioch, SyriaBronze AE 26, BMC Syria, p. 182, 261, aVF, Antioch mint, weight 13.524g, maximum diameter 25.0mm, die axis 0o, Jan - Sep 97 A.D.; Obverse: IMP CAESAR NERVA AVG III COS, laureate head right; Reverse: large S C in wreath, D below; unbelievable portrait. Ex FORVM. Photo courtesy FORVM.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families
Nerva (96-98 A.D.)


David Wend

Introduction
Although short, the reign of Marcus Cocceius Nerva (A.D. 96-98) is pivotal. The first of Edward Gibbon's so-called "Five Good Emperors," Nerva is credited with beginning the practice of adopting his heir rather than selecting a blood relative. Claimed as an ancestor by all the emperors down to Severus Alexander, he has traditionally been regarded with much good will at the expense of his predecessor, Domitian.

Ancestry
Nerva could claim eminent ancestry on both sides of his family. On the paternal side, his great-grandfather, M. Cocceius Nerva, was consul in 36 B.C.; his grandfather, a distinguished jurist of the same name, accompanied Tiberius on his retirement to Capri in 26 A.D. On his mother's side an aunt, Rubellia Bassa, was the great-granddaughter of Tiberius. In addition, a great-uncle, L. Cocceius Nerva, played a part in the negotiations that secured a treaty between Octavian and Antony in 40 B.C

Early Career and Life under Domitian
Nerva was born on 8 November, 30 A.D. Little is known of his upbringing beyond the fact that he belonged to a senatorial family and pursued neither a military nor a public speaking career. On the other hand, he did hold various priesthoods and was a praetor-designate. More importantly, as praetor designate in 65, Nerva was instrumental in revealing the conspiracy of Piso against the emperor Nero.

As a result, he received triumphal ornaments and his statue was placed in the palace. Following Nero's fall in 68, Nerva must have realized that support of Vespasian and the Flavian cause was in his best interests. In 71 his loyalty was rewarded with a joint consulship with the emperor, the only time that Vespasian ever held the office without his son Titus. It was under the reign of Vespasian's other son, Domitian, that Nerva's political fortunes were ultimately determined, however. He shared the ordinary consulship with Domitian in 90, an honor that was perhaps the result of his alerting the emperor about the revolt of Antonius Saturninus, the governor of Upper Germany, in 89. Even so, like so many others of the senatorial class, Nerva came under scrutiny in the final years of Domitian's reign, when the emperor was unwilling to tolerate any criticism.

Whether or not Nerva was forced to withdraw from public life during Domitian's final years remains an open question. What is not in dispute is that he was named emperor on the same day that Domitian was assassinated in September, 96. Indeed, in some respects the accession was improbable, since it placed the Empire under the control of a feeble sexagenarian and long-time Flavian supporter with close ties to the unpopular Domitian. On the other hand, Nerva had proven to be a capable senator, one with political connections and an ability to negotiate. Moreover, he had no children, thereby ensuring that the state would not become his hereditary possession.

Imperial Initiatives
Upon taking office, Nerva made immediate changes. He ordered the palace of Domitian to be renamed the House of the People, while he himself resided at the Horti Sallustiani, the favorite residence of Vespasian. More significantly, he took an oath before the senate that he would refrain from executing its members. He also released those who had been imprisoned by Domitian and recalled exiles not found guilty of serious crimes. Nevertheless, Nerva still allowed the prosecution of informers by the senate, a measure that led to chaos, as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies.

In the area of economic administration Nerva, like Domitian, was keen on maintaining a balanced budget. In early 97, after appointing a commission of five consular senators to give advice on reducing expenditures, he proceeded to abolish many sacrifices, races, and games. Similarly, he allowed no gold or silver statues to be made of himself. Even so, there was some room for municipal expenditure. For the urban poor of Italy he granted allotments of land worth 60 million sesterces, and he exempted parents and their children from a 5% inheritance tax. He also made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of needy families. These alimentary schemes were later extended by Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.

Because he reigned only briefly, Nerva's public works were few. By early 98 he dedicated the forum that Domitian had built to connect the Forum of Augustus with the Forum of Peace. It became known as the Forum of Nerva, or the Forum Transitorium. Nerva also built granaries, made repairs to the Colosseum when the Tiber flooded, and continued the program of road building and repairs inaugurated under the Flavians. In addition, pantomime performances, supressed by Domitian, were restored.

In the military realm, Nerva established veterans' colonies in Africa, a practice that was continued by the emperor Trajan. Normal military privileges were continued and some auxiliary units assumed the epithet Nervia or Nerviana. We are not well informed beyond these details, and any military action that may have occurred while Nerva was emperor is known sketchy at best.

Nature of Nerva's Government
Nerva's major appointments favored men whom he knew and trusted, and who had long served and been rewarded by the Flavians. Typical was Sextus Julius Frontinus. A consul under Vespasian and governor of Britain twenty years earlier, Frontinus came out of retirement to become curator of the water supply, an office that had long been subject to abuse and mismanagement. He helped to put an end to the abuses and published a significant work on Rome's water supply, De aquis urbis Romae. As a reward for his service, Frontinus was named consul for the second time in 98. Similarly, the emperor's own amici were often senators with Flavian ties, men who, by virtue of their links to the previous regime, were valuable to Nerva for what they knew. Thus do we find the likes of A. Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiiento, one of Domitian's ill-reputed counselors, seated next to Nerva at an imperial dinner. Nerva was less willing to consult the Senate as a whole. In many cases he preferred the opinions of his own consilium, and was less submissive than many senators would have liked. This attitude may have been responsible for hostile discontent among several senators.

Mutiny of the Praetorians and the Adoption of Trajan
It was not long before the assassination of Domitian came to work against the new emperor. Dissatisfied that Domitian had not been deified after his death, the praetorian guards mutinied under Casperius Aelianus in October 97. Taking the emperor as hostage, they demanded that Nerva hand over Domitian's murderers. The emperor not only relented, but was forced to give a public speech of thanks to the mutineers for their actions. His authority compomised, Nerva used the occasion of a victory in Pannonia over the Germans in late October, 97 to announce the adoption of Marcus Ulpius Traianus, governor of Upper Germany, as his successor. The new Caesar was immediately acclaimed imperator and granted the tribunicia potestas. Nerva's public announcement of the adoption settled succession as fact; he allowed no time to oppose his decision. From the German victory, Nerva assumed the epithet Germanicus and conferred the title on Trajan as well. He also made Trajan his consular colleague in 98.

Death and Deification
On January 1, 98, the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience. Three weeks later he died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust. From his headquarters at Cologne, Trajan insisted that Nerva's ashes be placed in the mausoleum of Augustus and asked the senate to vote on his deification. We are further told that he dedicated a temple to Nerva, yet no trace of it has ever been found. Nor was a commemorative series of coins issued for the Deified Nerva in the wake of his death, but only ten years later.

Conclusion
Nerva's reign was more concerned with the continuation of an existing political system than with the birth of a new age. Indeed, his economic policies, his relationship with the senate, and the men whom he chose to govern and to offer him advice all show signs of Flavian influence. In many respects, Nerva was the right man at the right time. His immediate accession following Domitian's murder prevented anarchy and civil war, while his age, poor health and moderate views were perfect attributes for a government that offered a bridge between Domitian's stormy reign and the emperorships of the stable rulers to follow.

Copyright (C) 1998, David Wend.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.
Cleisthenes
Poseidonia.jpg
Poseidonia, Lucania350-290 BC
AE 16 (16x13mm, 3.80g)
O: Poseidon, nude, advancing left, Brandishing trident over head.
R: Bull butting right, waves below; dolphin right in ex.
HN Italy 1167; SNG IV Fitzwilliam 566
Rare
ex Colosseum Coin Exchange; ex Forvm Ancient Coins

Poseidonia was founded shortly before 600 BC by colonists from Sybaris, and archeological evidence shows that they, like the Sybarites, enjoyed fine living.
The archaic style of the obverse remained even into the classical era, however this coin is quite rare in that Poseidon is facing left, rather than to the right as on almost all other examples from this city. The bull on the reverse, typical of the coins of Sybaris, honored the mother colony.
Poseidonia came under Roman control in 273 after the defeat of Pyrrhus, at which time the name was changed to Paestum.


1 commentsEnodia
D3var.jpg
RIC 003 Domitian VariantAR Denarius, 3.01g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVG; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P COS VII; Seat, draped; above, triangular frame decorated with corn ears, lituus within triangle
RIC 3 var. (no lituus within triangular frame on rev.). BMC 2 var. (same). RSC 554a var. (same). BNC 2 var. (same).
Ex Short collection. Acquired from Akropolis Coins 2017.

This early Domitian denarius is a rare variant of the common throne with triangular frame, a Titus carry-over pulvinar type, showing a lituus within the triangle. The lituus variant actually first showed up under Titus on a few rare denarii. Apparently the same engraver(s) were still working at the mint during Domitian's first few weeks as emperor. The upcoming RIC II.1 Addenda notes that some specimens may show a lituus but does not assign a separate catalogue number for the variant.

The throne with triangular frame pulvinar type was exclusively produced for Domitian in his first issue as Augustus, possibly in connection with the opening games of the Colosseum. The appearance of the lituus highlights the type's religious meaning.
1 commentsDavid Atherton
D7.jpg
RIC 007 DomitianAR Denarius, 2.94g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG PONT; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: P P COS VII DES VIII; Altar, garlanded and lighted
RIC 7 (R3). BMC p. 299 † note. RSC 370. BNC 9.
Ex Private Collection, February 2023.

Domitian seems to have been in somewhat of a hurry to strike coins as Augustus after Titus's death in mid September 81 AD, presumably for a legionary donative. This denarius was struck before Domitian had been awarded the power of the tribunate (TR P) and Pontifex Maximus (PM). Here his only titles are Augustus (AVG), Imperator (IMP), Consul for the 7th time (COS VII), and Pater Patriae, father of the country (P P). Perhaps it may have taken a few days for the Senate to award the power of the tribunate to Domitian because they had assembled at the small town of Reate where Titus had died and needed to be in Rome in order to vote him the right. The religious ceremonies required for Domitian to assume the title Pontifex Maximus had not yet finished by this time either, here he is simply PONT, or in other words a member of the College of Pontiffs. Some have argued that PONT is the same as PM, I disagree. Titus as Caesar early on had also used the title PONT on his denarii and he was never Pontifex Maximus under Vespasian - only the emperor can be Pontifex Maximus or greatest priest. Although this Group 2 denarius is not part of Domitian's first RIC issue, it is very likely to have been struck within the first few days of him assuming the purple. RIC notes the chronology is not precise with these issues from 81 and they are grouped only for 'convenience'. Judging by the rarity of the Group 2 denarii they could not have been struck for any great length of time. This reverse features a pulvinar altar type carried-over from Domitian's last denarius issue struck under Titus in celebration of the Colosseum's dedication. When the new RIC II.1 was published in 2007 just one specimen was known for this altar variety (BNC 9). This coin (a double die match) is now the second specimen. All the above references cite the previously unique Paris specimen.
6 commentsDavid Atherton
D8.jpg
RIC 008 DomitianAR Denarius, 3.13g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG PONT; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: P P COS VII DES VIII; Curule chair, wreath above
RIC 8 (R2). BMC p. 299 * note. RSC 372. BNC -.
Ex Savoca Blue 142, 11 September 2022, lot 926.

Domitian seems to have been in somewhat of a hurry to strike coins as Augustus after Titus's death in mid September 81 AD, presumably for a legionary donative. This denarius was struck before Domitian had been awarded the power of the tribunate (TR P) and pontifex maximus (PM). Here his only titles are Augustus (AVG), Imperator (IMP), Consul for the 7th time (COS VII), and pater patriae, father of the country (P P). Perhaps it may have taken a few days for the Senate to award the power of the tribunate to Domitian because they had assembled at the small town of Reate where Titus had died and needed to be in Rome in order to vote him the right. The religious ceremonies required for Domitian to assume the title pontifex maximus had not yet finished by this time either, here he is simply PONT, or in other words a member of the College of Pontiffs. Some have argued that PONT is the same as PM, I disagree. Titus as Caesar early on had also used the title PONT on his denarii and he was never pontifex maximus under Vespasian - only the emperor can be Pontifex Maximus or greatest priest. Although this Group 2 denarius is not part of Domitian's first RIC issue, it is very likely to have been struck within the first few days of him assuming the purple. RIC notes the chronology is not precise with these issues from 81 and they are grouped only for 'convenience'. Judging by the rarity of the Group 2 denarii they could not have been struck for any great length of time, perhaps for just a few days. The reverse features a pulvinar type carried-over from Titus's last denarius issue struck in celebration of the Colosseum's dedication. It possibly represents the pulvinar of Divus Vespasian, honouring his labours in building the structure. Missing from both the BM and Paris collections.
1 commentsDavid Atherton
Titusanchor.jpg
RIC 0112 Titus denariusIMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M
Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, right

TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P
Dolphin coiled around anchor

Rome mint, 80 AD
3.09g

RIC 112 (C2), BMCRE 72, RSC 309

Ex-Londinium Coins

Titus' pulvinar series commemorating the opening of the Colosseum.
4 commentsJay GT4
Titus_Elephant.jpg
RIC 0115 Titus DenariusTitus Denarius
IMP TITVS CAES VESPSIAN AVG P M
Laureate head right

TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P
Elephant, wearing armor, walking left

3.00g

Rome 80 CE

RIC 115 (C2); Cohen 303; BMC 44


Ex-Pella Coins and Antiquities
Heavy black toning

Commemorates the completion and dedication of the Colosseum and the opening of games in 80 AD, after ten years of construction.
3 commentsJay GT4
D15.jpg
RIC 015 DomitianAR Denarius, 3.10g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG P M; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: P P COS VII DES VIII; Seat, draped; above, semicircular frame decorated with corn ears
RIC 15 (R2). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Ex Savoca Blue 10, 30 September 2018, lot 1212.

The rapidity in which Domitian's first denarius issues of 81 came one after another hint that he was in a great hurry to strike coins as Augustus after Titus's death in mid September 81 AD, presumably for a legionary donative. Dio records that Domitian hastened to the praetorian camp to 'receive the title and authority of the emperor' and promised the soldiers the same bounty Titus had provided. The Roman mint immediately began striking coins for the new emperor. This denarius was struck before Domitian had been awarded the power of the tribunate (TR P). Perhaps it may have taken a few days for the Senate to award the power of the tribunate to Domitian because they had assembled at the small town of Reate where Titus had died and needed to be in Rome in order to vote him the right. Although this Group 2 denarius is not part of Domitian's first RIC issue, it is very likely to have been struck within the first few weeks of him assuming the purple. RIC notes the chronology is not precise with these issues from 81 and they are grouped only for 'convenience'. Judging by the rarity of the Group 2 denarii they could not have been struck for any great length of time.

The type of draped seat with semi circular frame is a carry-over 'pulvinaria' type from Titus, possibly originally struck in connection with the Colosseum's opening games' religious ceremonies. Domitian's 'pulvinaria' coins are a stop-gap issue struck until proper reverse types were designed for the new reign in early 82 when the mint and coinage were overhauled.

Good early style portrait, unsurprisingly reminiscent of those struck for him as Caesar under Titus.
4 commentsDavid Atherton
V195a.jpg
RIC 0195 VespasianÆ Sestertius, 25.37g
Rome mint, 71 AD
Obv: IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M TR P P P COS III; Head of Vespasian, laureate, r., drapery on l. shoulder
Rev: ROMA RESVRGES; S C in exergue; Vespasian stg. l., raising kneeling Roma (city); behind, the goddess Roma stg. r.
RIC 195 (R2). BMC 565. BNC 531.
Acquired from Marti Numismatics, September 2020. Ex Jean Elsen Auction 144, 14 March 2020, lot 526.

This iconic sestertius struck during the great bronze issue of 71 advertises Vespasian's ambitions to repair both the great financial burden and physical devastation Rome had suffered from the recent Civil War and Nero's great fire of 64. Vespasian is shown extending a hand to raise the kneeling personification of the city of Rome while the goddess Roma looks on with approval in the background. Suetonius tells us 'Rome was unsightly because of earlier fires and collapsed buildings...Having undertaken the restoration of the Capitol, he (Vespasian) was the first to set his hands to clearing away the rubble and carried it off on his own shoulders.' It would cost nearly 400 million aueri to set things right and put the city and the empire on sound footing. The 'Resurgence of Rome' announces the beginning of the bold plan to do so, which in hindsight was quite successful. The completion of the temple of Claudius, the rebuilding of the Capitol, the construction of the temple of Peace, and the building of the Colosseum all attest to Vespasian's success at achieving his goal.

Ironically, despite the importance of the reverse's message, these ultra-rare ROMA RESVRGES sestertii were struck from only one die pair and could not have been produced in very large numbers. Also of note, the drapery on Vespasian's left shoulder marks this coin as part of a special issue (the vast majority of his portraits are unadorned). Remarkably, this same exact scene was used for a reverse with the legend LIBERTAS RESTITVTA, probably produced by the same engraver.

Many examples of this type seen in trade are actually Paduan aftercasts in poor condition and are mistakenly(?) presented as ancient coins.

Fantastic portrait with beautiful dark olive patina. No tooling or smoothing!
3 commentsDavid Atherton
D20.jpg
RIC 020 DomitianAR Denarius, 3.02g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG P M; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: COS VII DES VIII P P; Altar, garlanded and lighted
RIC 20 (R2). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Ex Gemini X, 13 January 2013, Harry N. Sneh Collection, lot 707. Acquired from Freeman & Sear in 2009, from the A. Lynn Collection. Ex. Hauck & Aufhauser 17, 18 March 2003, lot 258. Ex G. Hirsch 3, April 1954, lot 323.

This type is quite rare with the legend omitting TR P. Only two specimens are cited by RIC, this coin from the Hauck & Aufhauser 17 auction and another in a private collection.
The reverse type of an Altar with Flame is part of the "pulvinaria" series issued by Titus and Domitian as part of the commemorative issue for the opening games of the Colosseum. It is a carry-over reverse from Domitian as Caesar.

Toned and in excellent condition. An exquisite example of early Domitianic coinage.
11 commentsDavid Atherton
D34b.jpg
RIC 034 Domitian AR Denarius, 3.35g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIAN AVG PONT; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded r.
Rev: COS VII DES VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, winged thunderbolt
RIC 34 (R3). BMC -. BNC -. RSC -.
Acquired from Laurel Coins, October 2023. Ex Leu Web Auction 26, 8 July 2023, lot 7037 (part).

An early rare 'PONT' denarius struck from Domitian's 3rd denarius issue of 81. The abbreviation 'PONT' for Ponitfex Maximus must have come early in the sequence of titles Domitian employed on his denarii and likely was short lived if its rarity is any indication. The records of the Arval brothers do not show Domitian as Pontifex Maximus by 30 October, so presumably he acquired the title in either November or December. This reverse type from the 3rd group of 81 featuring a draped chair and thunderbolt is likely the pulvinar of Jupiter. Strangely enough TRP is absent from the legends, why this is so I cannot say. It's a puzzling mystery considering the first group of denarii indeed record it. This carry-over pulvinar type originally struck for Titus is perhaps connected to the religious ceremonies for the opening games of the Colosseum. Fourth known specimen, missing from all the major collections.
2 commentsDavid Atherton
D37.jpg
RIC 037 DomitianAR Denarius, 2.96g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIAN AVG PONT; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded r.
Rev: COS VII DES VIII P P; Tripod with fillets; above, dolphin
RIC 37 (R2). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Ex Private Collection.

An early rare 'PONT' denarius struck from Domitian's 3rd denarius issue of 81. The abbreviation 'PONT' for Ponitfex Maximus must have come early in the sequence of titles Domitian employed on his denarii and likely was short lived if its rarity is any indication. The records of the Arval brothers do not show Domitian as Pontifex Maximus by 30 October, so presumably he acquired the title in either November or December. The tripod and dolphin reverse is a carry-over pulvinaria type struck originally for Titus and perhaps connected to the religious ceremonies for the opening games of the Colosseum. Domitian finished the structure early in his reign which perhaps explains the continued striking of the pulvinar issue.

Some bumps and scrapes common to detectorist finds.
4 commentsDavid Atherton
D46aaa.jpg
RIC 046 DomitianAR Denarius, 3.22g
Rome mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG PONT; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P COS VII DES VIII P P; Curule chair, wreath above
RIC 46 (R2). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Ex Private Collection, July 2020.

Here is a rare Domitian 'PONT' denarius with the legend variant of DOMITIANVS fully spelled out. Denarii with 'PONT' instead of PM in the obverse legend come very early in the reign. Historically, PONT did not stand for Pontifex Maximus under Augustus, but did so under Nero (PONT was used after Nero was already Pontifex Maximus, BMC 9). It is possible Domitian followed Nero's example and used PONT as an abbreviation for Pontifex Maximus. Conversely, it is also possible he followed in Augustus' footsteps and used the temporary title 'PONT' until the ceremony electing him to the position was completed. We simply do not know. The records of the Arval brothers do not show Domitian as Pontifex Maximus by 30 October, so presumably he acquired the title in either November or December. The office seems to have had no fixed date of appointment. Knowing how much of a stickler Domitian was to keeping to the proper forms, the mint likely waited until his election as Pontifex Maximus before the title was displayed on the coinage. Whether or not that title on the coinage after the election was abbreviated as 'PONT' for a brief time is a mystery. The reverse features a pulvinar type carried-over from Titus's last denarius issue struck in celebration of the Colosseum's dedication. It possibly represents the pulvinar of Divus Vespasian, honouring his labours in building the structure.
David Atherton
D50.jpg
RIC 050 DomitianAR Denarius, 2.82g
Rome Mint, 81 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DIVI VESP F DOMITIAN AVG P M; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P COS VII DES VIII P P; Curule chair, wreath above
RIC 50 (R2). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Ex Private Collection.

A pulvinar carry-over type from Titus's reign perhaps connected to the religious ceremonies for the opening games of the Colosseum. Domitian finished the top level of seating which perhaps explains the continued striking of the pulvinar issue during his first few months as Augustus. The curule chair and wreath possibly represents the pulvinar of Divus Vespasian, honouring his labours in building the structure. Although the type itself is common, it is extremely rare with the DIVI VESP F (Son of the Divine Vespasian) obverse legend.

Good metal and fine style.
4 commentsDavid Atherton
d605_new.jpg
RIC 0605Domitian AR Denarius 88 CE September 14-December 31(Third Issue)
(3.14g)
Obv: Head laureate left; IMP CAES DOMITIAN AVG GERM
Rev: COS XIIII across field; Column inscribed LVD SAEC FEC; All within laurel wreath
RIC 605 (R3)
Purchased from Dr. Busso Peus Nach April 16, 2021


I never thought that I would own one of these. All left-facing portraits of Domitian are very rare to extremely rare on his denarii. This is now my fourth left-facing denarius for Domitian and this is the most important one I have acquired. In fact, this may be the most important coin in my collection.

This coin is desirable because it is a secular games denarius. Though some of these are available to the collector on a fairly consistent basis, some from this series are incredibly rare. However, rarity aside, all of the secular games denarii are very much sought after. When they appear they are usually snapped up very quickly indeed. One reason for this is that the denarii of Domitian are dominated by the 4 Minerva reverses. Though I love those coins too, because of some hidden treasures in the midst of some extremely common issues, many collectors feel differently. In fact, I understand while many would call Domitian denarii boring. However, this new acquisition is anything but boring.

First, just look at the portrait. Domitian denarii struck between 84-88 are known for some amazing portraits executed by very talented engravers. In fact, within my collection, I have examples from the same engraver on different denarii! The style of this one is so superb and distinctive that I should be able to match this coin to other examples of the engraver's work. Given the rarity of this coin, it is no surprise that my coin is a double-die match to the RIC plate coin. The plate coin is held by the ANS in New York City. Just how rare is the coin? RIC lists it as R3 which means that one example was known to the authors of RIC (2007) at the time of publication. That has 2 implications. First, it means that mine is the second one known and secondly, it means that my coin is the only one known in private hands. That means that I have the responsibility of keeping this coin secure until it passes to the next owner. I am just a temporary guardian for this coin struck almost 2000 years ago.

It may be said that perhaps as a coin of Domitian it is not so important. Domitian's coinage is not avidly pursued like the coins of more famous figures such as Nero, Augustus, Julius Caesar, Brutus, and others. However, I would argue it is an important coin because it marks the secular games; a known historical event. Of course, Domitian is also important as the last member of the Flavian family of emperors. The Flavian era brought stability after the disastrous year of the four emperors. Domitian's father Vespasian would initiate the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, known today as the colosseum. Domitian's brother Titus finished the construction after the death of Vespasian. I would therefore say that this coin is an artifact of a very interesting historical period and as such is historically interesting.

No one knows why these left-facing portraits are so rare on Domitian's denarii. Left-facing portraits appear regularly on the bronze issues of Domitian. Also, left-facing portraits of Titus and his father Vespasian do appear on their denarii. While true that some of these are rare to very rare, many are not. In fact, some are very common indeed.

I like these unsolved mysteries associated with ancient coins. While it might someday be discovered why Domitian's denarii include so few left-facing portraits, it may also remain unknown for the foreseeable future. In the meantime, I find myself thrilled to be the temporary custodian of this piece. I am also going to keep my eyes open for other left-facing denarii of Domitian that become available.
4 commentsorfew
Vespasian_ric_773.jpg
RIC 0773Vespasian (69-79). AR Denarius (18.08 mm, 3.50 g, 6h). Rome, AD 75.
Obv: Bare head l. R IMP CEASAR VESPASIANUS AUG
Rev: Pax seated l., resting l. elbow on throne and holding branch.
PON MAX TRP COS VI
RIC II 773 (this coin); RSC –. Extremely Rare variety, near VF.
Ex Vecchi sale 13, 1998, 757.
Ex: St Paul Antiques auction 7 Lot 285 June 11, 2017




Vespasian ruled Rome for 10 years, and he was the last emperor in the year of the four emperors. His rule brought stability to the empire. He was famous for his military response to the Jewish revolt, and for the construction of the Flavian amphitheater. The looting of Jerusalem provided the funding for this building project. The colosseum was completed by his son Titus who became emperor after the death of Vespasian. The Flavian era had three emperors, Vespasian, his son Titus and his other son Domitian.

While this coin is worn, please take note of the bare head of Vespasian. There are only 2 known coin types that feature Vespasian with a bare head, all others are laureate. For one coin type there are several examples known to exist. For the coin type displayed below, this coin was, until very recently the only one to have surfaced. A second example has now been found by an expert on Flavian coinage. The reference Roman Imperial Coinage II Part 1 refers to my coin but does not have a photo of the coin. I sent a photo to the co-author of the volume, and I hope that a photo will be added when this edition is updated.
7 commentsorfew
T94.jpg
RIC 094 TitusAR Quinarius, 1.39g
Rome mint, 79-80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: VICTORIA AVGVST (anti-clockwise, outwardly, from high l.); Victory std. l., with wreath and palm
RIC 94 (C). BMC 110. RSC 370a. BNC 88.
Ex Tauler & Fau Auction 122, 2 February 2023, lot 2607.

Titus sparingly struck a small undated issue of quinarii in either 79 or 80. This Roman Republican Victory type is copied from quinarii previously minted by Vespasian. It is a mystery as to why quinarii were minted during the imperial era. Were they struck to make up required sums for imperial donatives as A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins states? Or were they minted as presentation pieces to be given away at special occasions? The opening games of the Colosseum is one such contemporary event that comes to mind. Either way, imperial quinarii are very scarce today.
1 commentsDavid Atherton
D96.jpg
RIC 096 DomitianAR Denarius, 3.26g
Rome mint, 82 AD
Obv: IMP CAES DOMITIANVS AVG P M; Head of Domitian, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR POT COS VIII P P; Dolphin coiled round anchor
RIC 96 (C). BMC 29. RSC 593. BNC 32.
Acquired from Lucernae, September 2012.

A fairly common early pulvinar of Neptune reverse of Domitian which is a carry over from an issue of Titus' before his death the previous year. Most likely the reverse is part of a religious series commemorating the opening of the Colosseum. This reverse and the series it comes from would be discontinued later the same year when Domitian radically changed the coinage by introducing new types and increasing the fineness of the denarius.

A wonderful coin in hand with a few minor scrapes which don't detract from the overall eye appeal. This type is rarely seen in such fine condition.
6 commentsDavid Atherton
titus curule rev.JPG
RIC 108 Titus (1)AR Denarius, 3.13g
Rome mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Curule chair; above, wreath
RIC 108 (C2). BMC 66. RSC 318. BNC 53.
Ex Paganecoins, eBay, June 2005.

A pulvinar type issued in celebration of the Colosseum's dedication. Possibly represents the pulvinar of Divus Vespasian, honouring his labours in building the structure.

A coin which has nice detail on the reverse, especially in the wreath.
2 commentsDavid Atherton
titus l curule chair.jpg
RIC 109 TitusAR Denarius, 2.98g
Rome Mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, l.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Curule chair; above, wreath
RIC 109 (R). BMC 70. RSC 319. BNC 55.
Acquired from Hixenbavgh Ancient Art, January 2008. Ex Robert Kutcher collection.

A pulvinar type issued to commemorate the Colosseum's dedication. It possibly represents the pulvinar of Divus Vespasian, honouring his labours in building the structure. This is the rarer left facing portrait variety of the type.

The RIC notes: The type is often described as showing two curule chairs, but is more likely a single chair with both pairs of legs shown.

David Atherton
titus dolphin rev.JPG
RIC 112 TitusAR Denarius, 2.87g
Rome mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Dolphin coiled round anchor
RIC 112 (C2). BMC 72. RSC 309. BNC 60.
Ex Harlan J Berk BBS 143, 18 May 2005, lot 177.

Struck in 80 AD for Titus's pulvinar series commemorating the opening of the Colosseum. BMCRE speculates this reverse depicts the pulvinar of Neptune and possibly Minerva.

Easily one of the best portraits of Titus I have ever seen. The condition of the obverse is excellent.
A coin I'm very proud to have.
11 commentsDavid Atherton
titus_tablel___thunderbolt.jpg
RIC 119 TitusAR Denarius, 3.37g
Rome Mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, winged thunderbolt
RIC 119 (C2). BMC 51. RSC 316. BNC 43.
Acquired from York Coins, February 2005.

A pulvinaria (supplication to the Gods) denarius, this one devoted to Jupiter or perhaps Juno. The occasion of the pulvinar may have been the opening ceremonies of the Colosseum.

A nice example of a good VF denarius of Titus. Full legends and a pleasing portrait.
1 commentsDavid Atherton
T119A.png
RIC 119A TitusAR Denarius, 3.31g
Rome Mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M.; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, thunderbolt
RIC 119A. BMC 51 var. (winged thunderbolt). RSC 316 var. (same). BNC 43 var. (same).
Acquired from Yesterday's Change, March 2017.

In the new RIC II this type is described as having a 'winged thunderbolt' above the seat. However, it is sometimes seen with a 'wingless thunderbolt'. The upcoming RIC II Addenda takes note of this and has assigned the wingless type its own catalogue number - RIC 119A.

This denarius is part of a series that was struck for the lectisternium (religious ceremony) celebrating the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD. Each god had its own sacred couch, in Latin they are known as 'pulvinaria', brought out in pairs in the Forum or some such public space. The series commemorates these sacred couches which were set out with 'exuviae' (emblems) representing the gods. The above coin most likely shows the 'pulvinar' of Jupiter and Juno.

Struck slightly off-centre in average style with nice 'cabinet toning'.
2 commentsDavid Atherton
Titus L throne.jpg
RIC 120 TitusAR Denarius, 3.13g
Rome Mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, l.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, winged thunderbolt
RIC 120 (C). BMC 56. RSC 314. BNC 45.
Acquired from Imperial Coins, June 2007.

A pulvinaria (supplication to the Gods) denarius, this one devoted to Jupiter or perhaps Juno. The occasion of the pulvinar may have been the opening ceremonies of the Colosseum. This is the slightly rarer left facing portrait variety of the type.

A pleasing portrait, even if the coin itself is a bit off-centre.

David Atherton
titus semi-circular throne.jpg
RIC 122 Titus AR Denarius, 3.04g
Rome Mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, semicircular frame with three crescents
RIC 122 (C2). BMC 58. RSC 313. BNC 48.
Acquired from Beast Coins, July 2006.

Another in a series of pulvinaria types Titus issued to commemorate the religious ceremonies for the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD. H. Mattingly in BMCRE attributes the reverse to Apollo and Diana.

A fairly typical denarius of Titus, well toned with a solid portrait.
1 commentsDavid Atherton
T124asm.jpg
RIC 124A TitusAR Denarius, 3.20g
Rome mint, 80 AD
Obv: IMP TITVS CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M; Head of Titus, laureate, bearded, r.
Rev: TR P IX IMP XV COS VIII P P; Seat, draped; above, triangular frame with five palmettes, lituus within triangle
RIC 124A (R3). BMC 61. RSC 313a. BNC 49.
Acquired from eBay, May 2017.

A rare variant of the common seat with triangular frame 'pulvinar' type showing a lituus within the triangle. The upcoming RIC II.1 Addenda notes that some specimens of the 3 and 9 palmettes variants show a lituus - with this coin we can now see the 5 palmettes variant does as well.

*Update - This type with lituus has been assigned its own unique RIC number - 124A.*

This denarius was struck possibly to commemorate the religious ceremonies connected to the opening games of the Colosseum.

Despite the wear, a good, solid denarius.
5 commentsDavid Atherton
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