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CANADA, Nova Scotia. William IV King of Great Britain, 1830-1837
CU Halfpenny Token
Belleville (New Jersey) mint. Dated 1832, but struck circa 1835
PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA, laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right
HALFPENNY TOKEN, thistle with two leaves; 1832 below
Charlton NS-3A2; Corteau 278, tentative die state 6; Breton 871
“Old residents state that these counterfeits were brought, in large quantities to St. John, N.B., and from thence distributed through fishing vessels to Nova Scotian out ports. And informant tells of having seen a fisherman from Yarmouth paid for his catch in this coin.” R.W. McLachlan (Annals of the Nova Scotian Coinage, p. 37)Ardatirion
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(501i) Roman Republic, D. Junius L.f. Silanus, 91 B.C.Silver denarius, Syd 646a, RSC Junia 16, S 225 var, Cr 337/3 var, VF, 3.718g, 18.6mm, 0o, Rome mint, 91 B.C.; obverse head of Roma right in winged helmet, X (control letter) behind; reverse Victory in a biga right holding reins in both hands, V (control numeral) above, D•SILANVS / ROMA in ex; mint luster in recesses. Ex FORVM.
Although the coin itself does not commemorate the event, the date this coin was struck is historically significant.
MARCUS Livius DRUSUS (his father was the colleague of Gaius Gracchus in the tribuneship, 122 B.C.), became tribune of the people in 91 B.C. He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy and generous, and a man of high integrity. With some of the more intelligent members of his party (such as Marcus Scaurus and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he recognized the need of reform. At that time an agitation was going on for the transfer of the judicial functions from the equites to the senate; Drusus proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by the admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission was to be appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of taking bribes.
The senate was hesitant; and the equites, whose occupation was threatened, offered the most violent opposition. In order, therefore, to catch the popular votes, Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced rate. By help of these riders the bill was carried.
Drusus now sought a closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long coveted boon of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out into open opposition. His laws were abrogated as informal, and each party armed its adherents for the civil struggle which was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one evening as he was returning home. His assassin was never discovered (http://62.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DR/DRUSUS_MARCUS_LIVIUS.htm).
The ensuing "Social War" (91-88 B.C.) would set the stage for the "Civil Wars" (88-87 & 82-81 B.C.) featuring, notably, Marius & Sulla; two men who would make significant impressions on the mind of a young Julius Caesar. Caesar would cross the Rubicon not thirty years later.
Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.Cleisthenes
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064 - Septimius Severus denarius - RIC 032Obv:- L SEPT SEV PERT AVG IMP III, Laureate head right
Rev:- LIBERO PATRI, Bacchus (Liber) standing half-left, holding oenochoe and thyrsos; on left, panther standing left, head turned back to catch drips from jug
Minted in Rome. A.D. 194
Reference:- BMCRE 64. RIC 32 (Scarce). RSC 301 maridvnvm
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1409a, Julian II "the Philosopher," February 360 - 26 June 363 A.D.Julian II, A.D. 360-363; RIC 167; VF; 2.7g, 20mm; Constantinople mint; Obverse: DN FL CL IVLIANVS P F AVG, helmeted & cuirassed bust right, holding spear & shield; Reverse: VOT X MVLT XX in four lines within wreath; CONSPB in exergue; Attractive green patina. Ex Nemesis.
De Imperatoribus Romanis,
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
Julian the Apostate (360-363 A.D.)
Walter E. Roberts, Emory University
Michael DiMaio, Jr., Salve Regina University
Introduction
The emperor Flavius Claudius Julianus reigned from 360 to 26 June 363, when he was killed fighting against the Persians. Despite his short rule, his emperorship was pivotal in the development of the history of the later Roman empire. This essay is not meant to be a comprehensive look at the various issues central to the reign of Julian and the history of the later empire. Rather, this short work is meant to be a brief history and introduction for the general reader. Julian was the last direct descendent of the Constantinian line to ascend to the purple, and it is one of history's great ironies that he was the last non-Christian emperor. As such, he has been vilified by most Christian sources, beginning with John Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzus in the later fourth century. This tradition was picked up by the fifth century Eusebian continuators Sozomen, Socrates Scholasticus, and Theodoret and passed on to scholars down through the 20th century. Most contemporary sources, however, paint a much more balanced picture of Julian and his reign. The adoption of Christianity by emperors and society, while still a vital concern, was but one of several issues that concerned Julian.
It is fortunate that extensive writings from Julian himself exist, which help interpret his reign in the light of contemporary evidence. Still extant are some letters, several panegyrics, and a few satires. Other contemporary sources include the soldier Ammianus Marcellinus' history, correspondence between Julian and Libanius of Antioch, several panegyrics, laws from the Theodosian Code, inscriptions, and coinage. These sources show Julian's emphasis on restoration. He saw himself as the restorer of the traditional values of Roman society. Of course much of this was rhetoric, meant to defend Julian against charges that he was a usurper. At the same time this theme of restoration was central to all emperors of the fourth century. Julian thought that he was the one emperor who could regain what was viewed as the lost glory of the Roman empire. To achieve this goal he courted select groups of social elites to get across his message of restoration. This was the way that emperors functioned in the fourth century. By choosing whom to include in the sharing of power, they sought to shape society.
Early Life
Julian was born at Constantinople in 331. His father was Julius Constantius, half-brother of the emperor Constantine through Constantius Chlorus, and his mother was Basilina, Julius' second wife. Julian had two half-brothers via Julius' first marriage. One of these was Gallus, who played a major role in Julian's life. Julian appeared destined for a bright future via his father's connection to the Constantinian house. After many years of tense relations with his three half-brothers, Constantine seemed to have welcomed them into the fold of the imperial family. From 333 to 335, Constantine conferred a series of honors upon his three half-siblings, including appointing Julius Constantius as one of the consuls for 335. Julian's mother was equally distinguished. Ammianus related that she was from a noble family. This is supported by Libanius, who claimed that she was the daughter of Julius Julianus, a Praetorian Prefect under Licinius, who was such a model of administrative virtue that he was pardoned and honored by Constantine.
Despite the fact that his mother died shortly after giving birth to him, Julian experienced an idyllic early childhood. This ended when Constantius II conducted a purge of many of his relatives shortly after Constantine's death in 337, particularly targeting the families of Constantine's half-brothers. ulian and Gallus were spared, probably due to their young age. Julian was put under the care of Mardonius, a Scythian eunuch who had tutored his mother, in 339, and was raised in the Greek philosophical tradition, and probably lived in Nicomedia. Ammianus also supplied the fact that while in Nicomedia, Julian was cared for by the local bishop Eusebius, of whom the future emperor was a distant relation. Julian was educated by some of the most famous names in grammar and rhetoric in the Greek world at that time, including Nicocles and Hecebolius. In 344 Constantius II sent Julian and Gallus to Macellum in Cappadocia, where they remained for six years. In 351, Gallus was made Caesar by Constantius II and Julian was allowed to return to Nicomedia, where he studied under Aedesius, Eusebius, and Chrysanthius, all famed philosophers, and was exposed to the Neo-Platonism that would become such a prominent part of his life. But Julian was most proud of the time he spent studying under Maximus of Ephesus, a noted Neo-Platonic philospher and theurgist. It was Maximus who completed Julian's full-scale conversion to Neo-Platonism. Later, when he was Caesar, Julian told of how he put letters from this philosopher under his pillows so that he would continue to absorb wisdom while he slept, and while campaigning on the Rhine, he sent his speeches to Maximus for approval before letting others hear them. When Gallus was executed in 354 for treason by Constantius II, Julian was summoned to Italy and essentially kept under house arrest at Comum, near Milan, for seven months before Constantius' wife Eusebia convinced the emperor that Julian posed no threat. This allowed Julian to return to Greece and continue his life as a scholar where he studied under the Neo-Platonist Priscus. Julian's life of scholarly pursuit, however, ended abruptly when he was summoned to the imperial court and made Caesar by Constantius II on 6 November 355.
Julian as Caesar
Constantius II realized an essential truth of the empire that had been evident since the time of the Tetrarchy--the empire was too big to be ruled effectively by one man. Julian was pressed into service as Caesar, or subordinate emperor, because an imperial presence was needed in the west, in particular in the Gallic provinces. Julian, due to the emperor's earlier purges, was the only viable candidate of the imperial family left who could act as Caesar. Constantius enjoined Julian with the task of restoring order along the Rhine frontier. A few days after he was made Caesar, Julian was married to Constantius' sister Helena in order to cement the alliance between the two men. On 1 December 355, Julian journeyed north, and in Augusta Taurinorum he learned that Alamannic raiders had destroyed Colonia Agrippina. He then proceeded to Vienne where he spent the winter. At Vienne, he learned that Augustudunum was also under siege, but was being held by a veteran garrison. He made this his first priority, and arrived there on 24 June 356. When he had assured himself that the city was in no immediate danger, he journeyed to Augusta Treverorum via Autessioduram, and from there to Durocortorum where he rendezvoused with his army. Julian had the army stage a series of punitive strikes around the Dieuse region, and then he moved them towards the Argentoratum/Mongontiacum region when word of barbarian incursions reached him.
From there, Julian moved on to Colonia Agrippina, and negotiated a peace with the local barbarian leaders who had assaulted the city. He then wintered at Senonae. He spent the early part of the campaigning season of 357 fighting off besiegers at Senonae, and then conducting operations around Lugdunum and Tres Tabernae. Later that summer, he encountered his watershed moment as a military general. Ammianus went into great detail about Julian's victory over seven rogue Alamannic chieftains near Argentoratum, and Julian himself bragged about it in his later writing. After this battle, the soldiers acclaimed Julian Augustus, but he rejected this title. After mounting a series of follow-up raids into Alamannic territory, he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia, and on the way defeated some Frankish raiders in the Mosa region. Julian considered this campaign one of the major events of his time as Caesar.
Julian began his 358 military campaigns early, hoping to catch the barbarians by surprise. His first target was the Franks in the northern Rhine region. He then proceeded to restore some forts in the Mosa region, but his soldiers threatened to mutiny because they were on short rations and had not been paid their donative since Julian had become Caesar. After he soothed his soldiers, Julian spent the rest of the summer negotiating a peace with various Alamannic leaders in the mid and lower Rhine areas, and retired to winter quarters at Lutetia. In 359, he prepared once again to carry out a series of punitive expeditions against the Alamanni in the Rhine region who were still hostile to the Roman presence. In preparation, the Caesar repopulated seven previously destroyed cities and set them up as supply bases and staging areas. This was done with the help of the people with whom Julian had negotiated a peace the year before. Julian then had a detachment of lightly armed soldiers cross the Rhine near Mogontiacum and conduct a guerilla strike against several chieftains. As a result of these campaigns, Julian was able to negotiate a peace with all but a handful of the Alamannic leaders, and he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia.
Of course, Julian did more than act as a general during his time as Caesar. According to Ammianus, Julian was an able administrator who took steps to correct the injustices of Constantius' appointees. Ammianus related the story of how Julian prevented Florentius, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, from raising taxes, and also how Julian actually took over as governor for the province of Belgica Secunda. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, supported Ammianus' basic assessment of Julian in this regard when he reported that Julian was an able representative of the emperor to the Gallic provincials. There is also epigraphic evidence to support Julian's popularity amongst the provincial elites. An inscription found near Beneventum in Apulia reads:
"To Flavius Claudius Julianus, most noble and sanctified Caesar, from the caring Tocius Maximus, vir clarissimus, for the care of the res publica from Beneventum".
Tocius Maximus, as a vir clarissimus, was at the highest point in the social spectrum and was a leader in his local community. This inscription shows that Julian was successful in establishing a positive image amongst provincial elites while he was Caesar.
Julian Augustus
In early 360, Constantius, driven by jealousy of Julian's success, stripped Julian of many troops and officers, ostensibly because the emperor needed them for his upcoming campaign against the Persians. One of the legions ordered east, the Petulantes, did not want to leave Gaul because the majority of the soldiers in the unit were from this region. As a result they mutinied and hailed Julian as Augustus at Lutetia. Julian refused this acclamation as he had done at Argentoratum earlier, but the soldiers would have none of his denial. They raised him on a shield and adorned him with a neck chain, which had formerly been the possession of the standard-bearer of the Petulantes and symbolized a royal diadem. Julian appeared reluctantly to acquiesce to their wishes, and promised a generous donative. The exact date of his acclamation is unknown, but most scholars put it in February or March. Julian himself supported Ammianus' picture of a jealous Constantius. In his Letter to the Athenians, a document constructed to answer charges that he was a usurper, Julian stated that from the start he, as Caesar, had been meant as a figurehead to the soldiers and provincials. The real power he claimed lay with the generals and officials already present in Gaul. In fact, according to Julian, the generals were charged with watching him as much as the enemy. His account of the actual acclamation closely followed what Ammianus told us, but he stressed even more his reluctance to take power. Julian claimed that he did so only after praying to Zeus for guidance.
Fearing the reaction of Constantius, Julian sent a letter to his fellow emperor justifying the events at Lutetia and trying to arrange a peaceful solution. This letter berated Constantius for forcing the troops in Gaul into an untenable situation. Ammianus stated that Julian's letter blamed Constantius' decision to transfer Gallic legions east as the reason for the soldiers' rebellion. Julian once again asserted that he was an unwilling participant who was only following the desire of the soldiers. In both of these basic accounts Ammianus and Julian are playing upon the theme of restoration. Implicit in their version of Julian's acclamation is the argument that Constantius was unfit to rule. The soldiers were the vehicle of the gods' will. The Letter to the Athenians is full of references to the fact that Julian was assuming the mantle of Augustus at the instigation of the gods. Ammianus summed up this position nicely when he related the story of how, when Julian was agonizing over whether to accept the soldiers' acclamation, he had a dream in which he was visited by the Genius (guardian spirit) of the Roman state. The Genius told Julian that it had often tried to bestow high honors upon Julian but had been rebuffed. Now, the Genius went on to say, was Julian's final chance to take the power that was rightfully his. If the Caesar refused this chance, the Genius would depart forever, and both Julian and the state would rue Julian's rejection. Julian himself wrote a letter to his friend Maximus of Ephesus in November of 361 detailing his thoughts on his proclamation. In this letter, Julian stated that the soldiers proclaimed him Augustus against his will. Julian, however, defended his accession, saying that the gods willed it and that he had treated his enemies with clemency and justice. He went on to say that he led the troops in propitiating the traditional deities, because the gods commanded him to return to the traditional rites, and would reward him if he fulfilled this duty.
During 360 an uneasy peace simmered between the two emperors. Julian spent the 360 campaigning season continuing his efforts to restore order along the Rhine, while Constantius continued operations against the Persians. Julian wintered in Vienne, and celebrated his Quinquennalia. It was at this time that his wife Helena died, and he sent her remains to Rome for a proper burial at his family villa on the Via Nomentana where the body of her sister was entombed. The uneasy peace held through the summer of 361, but Julian concentrated his military operations around harassing the Alamannic chieftain Vadomarius and his allies, who had concluded a peace treaty with Constantius some years earlier. By the end of the summer, Julian decided to put an end to the waiting and gathered his army to march east against Constantius. The empire teetered on the brink of another civil war. Constantius had spent the summer negotiating with the Persians and making preparations for possible military action against his cousin. When he was assured that the Persians would not attack, he summoned his army and sallied forth to meet Julian. As the armies drew inexorably closer to one another, the empire was saved from another bloody civil war when Constantius died unexpectedly of natural causes on 3 November near the town of Mopsucrenae in Cilicia, naming Julian -- the sources say-- as his legitimate successor.
Julian was in Dacia when he learned of his cousin's death. He made his way through Thrace and came to Constantinople on 11 December 361 where Julian honored the emperor with the funeral rites appropriate for a man of his station. Julian immediately set about putting his supporters in positions of power and trimming the imperial bureaucracy, which had become extremely overstaffed during Constantius' reign. Cooks and barbers had increased during the late emperor's reign and Julian expelled them from his court. Ammianus gave a mixed assessment of how the new emperor handled the followers of Constantius. Traditionally, emperors were supposed to show clemency to the supporters of a defeated enemy. Julian, however, gave some men over to death to appease the army. Ammianus used the case of Ursulus, Constantius' comes sacrum largitionum, to illustrate his point. Ursulus had actually tried to acquire money for the Gallic troops when Julian had first been appointed Caesar, but he had also made a disparaging remark about the ineffectiveness of the army after the battle of Amida. The soldiers remembered this, and when Julian became sole Augustus, they demanded Ursulus' head. Julian obliged, much to the disapproval of Ammianus. This seems to be a case of Julian courting the favor of the military leadership, and is indicative of a pattern in which Julian courted the goodwill of various societal elites to legitimize his position as emperor.
Another case in point is the officials who made up the imperial bureaucracy. Many of them were subjected to trial and punishment. To achieve this goal, during the last weeks of December 361 Julian assembled a military tribunal at Chalcedon, empanelling six judges to try the cases. The president of the tribunal was Salutius, just promoted to the rank of Praetorian Prefect; the five other members were Mamertinus, the orator, and four general officers: Jovinus, Agilo, Nevitta, and Arbetio. Relative to the proceedings of the tribunal, Ammianus noted that the judges, " . . . oversaw the cases more vehemently than was right or fair, with the exception of a few . . .." Ammianus' account of Julian's attempt at reform of the imperial bureaucracy is supported by legal evidence from the Theodosian Code. A series of laws sent to Mamertinus, Julian's appointee as Praetorian Prefect in Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, illustrate this point nicely. On 6 June 362, Mamertinus received a law that prohibited provincial governors from bypassing the Vicars when giving their reports to the Prefect. Traditionally, Vicars were given civil authority over a group of provinces, and were in theory meant to serve as a middle step between governors and Prefects. This law suggests that the Vicars were being left out, at least in Illyricum. Julian issued another edict to Mamertinus on 22 February 362 to stop abuse of the public post by governors. According to this law, only Mamertinus could issue post warrants, but the Vicars were given twelve blank warrants to be used as they saw fit, and each governor was given two. Continuing the trend of bureaucratic reform, Julian also imposed penalties on governors who purposefully delayed appeals in court cases they had heard. The emperor also established a new official to weigh solidi used in official government transactions to combat coin clipping.
For Julian, reigning in the abuses of imperial bureaucrats was one step in restoring the prestige of the office of emperor. Because he could not affect all elements of society personally, Julian, like other Neo-Flavian emperors, decided to concentrate on select groups of societal elites as intercessors between himself and the general populace. One of these groups was the imperial bureaucracy. Julian made it very clear that imperial officials were intercessors in a very real sense in a letter to Alypius, Vicar of Britain. In this letter, sent from Gaul sometime before 361, the emperor praises Alypius for his use of "mildness and moderation with courage and force" in his rule of the provincials. Such virtues were characteristic of the emperors, and it was good that Alypius is representing Julian in this way. Julian courted the army because it put him in power. Another group he sought to include in his rule was the traditional Senatorial aristocracy. One of his first appointments as consul was Claudius Mamertinus, a Gallic Senator and rhetorician. Mamertinus' speech in praise of Julian delivered at Constantinople in January of 362 is preserved. In this speech, Claudius presented his consular selection as inaugurating a new golden age and Julian as the restorer of the empire founded by Augustus. The image Mamertinus gave of his own consulate inaugurating a new golden age is not merely formulaic. The comparison of Julian to Augustus has very real, if implicit, relevance to Claudius' situation. Claudius emphasized the imperial period as the true age of renewal. Augustus ushered in a new era with his formation of a partnership between the emperor and the Senate based upon a series of honors and offices bestowed upon the Senate in return for their role as intercessor between emperor and populace. It was this system that Julian was restoring, and the consulate was one concrete example of this bond. To be chosen as a consul by the emperor, who himself had been divinely mandated, was a divine honor. In addition to being named consul, Mamertinus went on to hold several offices under Julian, including the Prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Similarly, inscriptional evidence illustrates a link between municipal elites and Julian during his time as Caesar, something which continued after he became emperor. One concrete example comes from the municipal senate of Aceruntia in Apulia, which established a monument on which Julian is styled as "Repairer of the World."
Julian seems to have given up actual Christian belief before his acclamation as emperor and was a practitioner of more traditional Greco-Roman religious beliefs, in particular, a follower of certain late antique Platonist philosophers who were especially adept at theurgy as was noted earlier. In fact Julian himself spoke of his conversion to Neo-Platonism in a letter to the Alexandrians written in 363. He stated that he had abandoned Christianity when he was twenty years old and been an adherent of the traditional Greco-Roman deities for the twelve years prior to writing this letter.
(For the complete text of this article see: http://www.roman-emperors.org/julian.htm)
Julian’s Persian Campaign
The exact goals Julian had for his ill-fated Persian campaign were never clear. The Sassanid Persians, and before them the Parthians, had been a traditional enemy from the time of the Late Republic, and indeed Constantius had been conducting a war against them before Julian's accession forced the former to forge an uneasy peace. Julian, however, had no concrete reason to reopen hostilities in the east. Socrates Scholasticus attributed Julian's motives to imitation of Alexander the Great, but perhaps the real reason lay in his need to gather the support of the army. Despite his acclamation by the Gallic legions, relations between Julian and the top military officers was uneasy at best. A war against the Persians would have brought prestige and power both to Julian and the army.
Julian set out on his fateful campaign on 5 March 363. Using his trademark strategy of striking quickly and where least expected, he moved his army through Heirapolis and from there speedily across the Euphrates and into the province of Mesopotamia, where he stopped at the town of Batnae. His plan was to eventually return through Armenia and winter in Tarsus. Once in Mesopotamia, Julian was faced with the decision of whether to travel south through the province of Babylonia or cross the Tigris into Assyria, and he eventually decided to move south through Babylonia and turn west into Assyria at a later date. By 27 March, he had the bulk of his army across the Euphrates, and had also arranged a flotilla to guard his supply line along the mighty river. He then left his generals Procopius and Sebastianus to help Arsacius, the king of Armenia and a Roman client, to guard the northern Tigris line. It was also during this time that he received the surrender of many prominent local leaders who had nominally supported the Persians. These men supplied Julian with money and troops for further military action against their former masters. Julian decided to turn south into Babylonia and proceeded along the Euphrates, coming to the fortress of Cercusium at the junction of the Abora and Euphrates Rivers around the first of April, and from there he took his army west to a region called Zaitha near the abandoned town of Dura where they visited the tomb of the emperor Gordian which was in the area. On April 7 he set out from there into the heart of Babylonia and towards Assyria.
Ammianus then stated that Julian and his army crossed into Assyria, which on the face of things appears very confusing. Julian still seems to be operating within the province of Babylonia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The confusion is alleviated when one realizes that,for Ammianus, the region of Assyria encompassed the provinces of Babylonia and Assyria. On their march, Julian's forces took the fortress of Anatha, received the surrender and support of several more local princes, and ravaged the countryside of Assyria between the rivers. As the army continued south, they came across the fortresses Thilutha and Achaiachala, but these places were too well defended and Julian decided to leave them alone. Further south were the cities Diacira and Ozogardana, which the Roman forces sacked and burned. Soon, Julian came to Pirisabora and a brief siege ensued, but the city fell and was also looted and destroyed. It was also at this time that the Roman army met its first systematic resistance from the Persians. As the Romans penetrated further south and west, the local inhabitants began to flood their route. Nevertheless, the Roman forces pressed on and came to Maiozamalcha, a sizable city not far from Ctesiphon. After a short siege, this city too fell to Julian. Inexorably, Julian's forces zeroed in on Ctesiphon, but as they drew closer, the Persian resistance grew fiercer, with guerilla raids whittling at Julian's men and supplies. A sizable force of the army was lost and the emperor himself was almost killed taking a fort a few miles from the target city.
Finally, the army approached Ctesiphon following a canal that linked the Tigris and Euphrates. It soon became apparent after a few preliminary skirmishes that a protracted siege would be necessary to take this important city. Many of his generals, however, thought that pursuing this course of action would be foolish. Julian reluctantly agreed, but became enraged by this failure and ordered his fleet to be burned as he decided to march through the province of Assyria. Julian had planned for his army to live off the land, but the Persians employed a scorched-earth policy. When it became apparent that his army would perish (because his supplies were beginning to dwindle) from starvation and the heat if he continued his campaign, and also in the face of superior numbers of the enemy, Julian ordered a retreat on 16 June. As the Roman army retreated, they were constantly harassed by guerilla strikes. It was during one of these raids that Julian got caught up in the fighting and took a spear to his abdomen. Mortally wounded he was carried to his tent, where, after conferring with some of his officers, he died. The date was 26 June 363.
Conclusion
Thus an ignominious end for a man came about who had hoped to restore the glory of the Roman empire during his reign as emperor. Due to his intense hatred of Christianity, the opinion of posterity has not been kind to Julian. The contemporary opinion, however, was overall positive. The evidence shows that Julian was a complex ruler with a definite agenda to use traditional social institutions in order to revive what he saw as a collapsing empire. In the final assessment, he was not so different from any of the other emperors of the fourth century. He was a man grasping desperately to hang on to a Greco-Roman conception of leadership that was undergoing a subtle yet profound change.
Copyright (C) 2002, Walter E. Roberts and Michael DiMaio, Jr. Used by permission.
In reality, Julian worked to promote culture and philosophy in any manifestation. He tried to reduce taxes and the public debts of municipalities; he augmented administrative decentralisation; he promoted a campaign of austerity to reduce public expenditure (setting himself as the example). He reformed the postal service and eliminated the powerful secret police.
by Federico Morando; JULIAN II, The Apostate, See the Julian II Page on NumisWiki
Flavius Claudius Iulianus was born in 331 or maybe 332 A.D. in Constantinople. He ruled the Western Empire as Caesar from 355 to 360 and was hailed Augustus by his legions in Lutetia (Paris) in 360. Julian was a gifted administrator and military strategist. Famed as the last pagan emperor, his reinstatement of the pagan religion earned him the moniker "the Apostate." As evidenced by his brilliant writing, some of which has survived to the present day, the title "the Philosopher" may have been more appropriate. He died from wounds suffered during the Persian campaign of 363 A.D. Joseph Sermarini, FORVM.
Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.
Cleisthenes
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An inscribed lead weight from Nicomedia, province of Bithynia (AD 200-201)This had to be the first entry in my gallery because I bought my first coin (entry #2) with the money I thought I had 'saved' by catching this one at a way lower price than I was expecting to pay (adrenaline highs play weird tricks on your mind). To me, this ugly piece of lead is worth more than a thousand of your finest silver coins. Sadly, I'm unlikely to be able to purchase any more of these, so I'll content myself with coins.
Description incoming, and a lenghty one shall it be. [Update: hold on, the courier went AWOL.][Update 2: never mind update 1, they eventually made contact – better late than never. ETA: 3 more days.]
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze crossbow fibula
long catch plate, knobbed cross
with incised ornaments
65 x 50mm / 34.3g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze strongly profiled fibula
triangular molding on the top of the catch plate
48x18mm / 11.6g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtIron P-shaped fibula with
catch plate tail looped
and wrapped around
65x18mm / 16g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze P-shaped fibula with
catch plate tail looped back
51x14mm / 10.3g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze crossbow fibula with
catch plate tail looped back
and wrapped around.
57x18mm / 7.2g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze fibular brooch with enamel decoration.
triangular molding on the top of the catch plate
square body, pin is missing
42x23mm / 10.5g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtIron P-shaped fibula with
catch plate tail looped back.
Spring with robust axis bar, 57mm long.
84 x 30mm / 36.2g
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Antiquities & Ancient ArtBronze disc brooch with enamel decoration
flat decorative surface and central spiked boss
surface inlaid with blue and white
4 small circles on the perimeter, 2 are missed.
On the reverse only the hinge lugs
and catchplate are present.
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Aurelius 161-180 AD aw. AVRELIVS CAESAR AVG PII F
Head of Marcus Aurelius, bare, right
rew. COS II
Spes, draped, advancing left, holding up bud of flower in right hand and with left hand catching up fold of drapery
RIC III Antoninus Pius 431
mennica Rzym , 146-160 AD
Waldemar S
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BCC MA39Enameled Plate Fibula
Caesarea Maritima
Roman 2nd - 3rd Century CE
Rectangular bronze plate fibula
with two sections of brick-red
enamel separated by waviform
partition. Rounded triangular
end pieces topped by circular
design with incised concentric
circles. The missing pin was
articulated with a dual plaque
hinge and iron axis-pin.
A hooked pin-catch extends
perpendicular from the foot,
parallel to the length of the fibula.
Length: 3.8 x 1.3cm. Weight:3.20gm.
Surface find, 1970
(click for larger pic)v-drome
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BCC MA43Bow Fibula - Aucissa Type
Caesarea Maritima
Roman 1st Century CE
Classic Aucissa type bow fibula with
single pin rolled tube hinge decorated
with two concentric punch marks The
high flat ribbon bow form has a reeded,
raised central rib and borders. The solid
foot is finished with a hammered and
rolled pin-catch and a very small wolf's
head with ears and facial features.
5.8cm x 3.1cm. Weight: 8.18gm.
Surface find, 1972
(click for larger pic)v-drome
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Cr 56/4 AE Triens AnonymousRome, after 211 BCE
o: Helmeted head of Minerva right; above, four pellets
r: ROMA. Prow right; below, four pellets.
9.08 gm, 25.00 MM
This coin is vastly better in hand than this photo. The patination is perfect. The execution of the reverse is somewhat amusing -- the prow is almost crammed to fit within the border due to a disproportionally large hull and seems curled back on itself, hardly an impressive vessel if it were real.
The "sextantal" series that are collected under Crawford's Type 56 is really a catch-all for numerous sub-groups, for which there is no better resource than McCabe's website to distinguish into several groups. Obviously, since I am not making that attribution at the moment, I have not taken the close effort with this coin, even though I like looking at it. Compare it to my earlier example in this gallery, which is not nearly as nice.PMah
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CUBA - Souvenir PesoCUBA - Souvenir Peso, AR, 1897, stars below baseline, Type II. KM #XM-2
The Cuban Numismatic Association writes:
In 1897, the liberation war campaign is in dire need of funds to buy arms and pay the troops. Numerous fundraising events are held from New York City to Tampa and Key West to raise the much-needed money. in 1897, the war campaign is in dire need of funds to buy arms and pay the troops. Numerous fundraising events are held from New York City to Tampa and Key West to raise the much-needed money.
On March 12, 1897, Andrew J. Cobe, a New York “wheeler-dealer,” writes Estrada Palma, offering his idea to strike a coin that would accelerate “Cuba Libre” such as “a souvenir issue similar to the Columbian half dollar”. The idea catches fire almost immediately and, after the details are spelled out in a letter from Cobe to Estrada Palma on April 17, 1897, an agreement is reached and a contract signed on May 10th to strike 3,000,000 coins with “the first installment to consist of ten thousand coins to be delivered within sixty days from date of this contract.”
To prepare a Plaster Cast of the Obverse and Reverse using a design supplied by Estrada Palma, Mr. Cobe contracts Mr. Phillip Martiny, a designer, sculptor and medalist, who together with Saint-Gaudens, had designed in 1889 the Medal of the Centennial Anniversary of the Inauguration of George Washington as President of The United States. Mr. Martiny declines to charge for his work as a donation to the Cuba Libre cause.dpaul7
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Gallienus - Stag ProvincialRoman Provincial Coins
Gallienus, Ionia 253-268 AD
Obverse:- AYT K ΠO ΛIKI ΓAΛΛIHNOC, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right, from behind
Reverse:- EΦECIΩN Γ NEΩKO,PΩN (last three letters in exergue), Artemis right, catching stag, pulling it down by the antlers, left knee on animal's hindquarters
Ephesos mint
Bronze AE.
3.174g
(Purchased from Forvm Shop)
20.3mmnogoodnicksleft
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GREEKSilver fibula. 5th c. BC. 4,3 cms h. Single piece construction terminated in a stylized ram's head.Incised design on the outer facet of the bow and on the square catchplate,beyond which the pin turns in a u-shape with the ram's head at the terminal with stylized nose and mouth.Fine coiled antlers from a separate piece of wire applied to the crown of the ram's head.
Ancient Art XXXVIII. # 31.benito
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HerculesThis medallion of Gordian III represents the third labour of Hercules. This labour was to capture the Hind of Cerynaea, the hind was known as Cerynitis. Eurystheus bestowed this task upon Heracles knowing full well that the animal was the sacred property of Artemis, that meant he would be committing impiety against the goddess. Artemis found a small herd of five while out hunting, she captured four to harness to her chariot, but the fifth escaped to Mount Cerynaea which borders Arcadia and Achaea. The animal was larger than a bull, brazen-hoofed also with huge golden horns or antlers of a stag.
With the hind being swift of foot it took Heracles a whole year to get close to the creature. He tracked the hind through Greece and into Thrace, (in some versions it says the chase took Heracles as far as Istria and the northern lands of the Hyperboreans). Never daunted by the long chase, Heracles was waiting for the hind to tire, this was not to be, and the hind seemed to have plenty of stamina and agility left.
Heracles knew he must disable the creature in some way, then by chance the hind stopped to drink at a river. Taking an arrow and removing the blood of the Hydra from the tip, Heracles took aim and hit the hind in the leg, making it lame, this made catching the creature much easier. Heracles bound the wound and then set off on his long journey home. On the way to the palace of Eurystheus he was met by the goddess Artemis and her twin brother Apollo. On seeing the Ceryneian Hind, the huntress accused Heracles of sacrilege. Heracles pleaded with them, saying it was a necessity to return the sacred hind to the court of king Eurystheus, as he was bound by the labor imposed on him. Artemis granted Heracles forgiveness and he was allowed to carry the hind alive to the palace.
Upon bringing the hind to Eurystheus, he was told that it was to become part of the King's menagerie. Heracles knew that he had to return the hind as he had promised, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself come out and take it from him. The King came out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, it sprinted back to its mistress, and Heracles left saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough
benito
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Huszár 807, Pohl 242-3, Unger 641c, Réthy II 272B, Kaplan Subtype CHungary. Wladislaus II (Ulászló II in Hun.) (1490-1516). AR denar, 15-15.5 mm.
Obv: * WLADISLAI * VNGARI •, Four-part shield with Hungarian arms (Árpádian stripes, patriarchal cross, Dalmatian leopard heads, Bohemian lion), Polish eagle with outstretched wings in center, rosettes above and to sides of shield.
Rev: PATRON * R VNGAR •, Crowned Madonna with infant Jesus to her right, n-A (privy mark) in fields.
The type was struck 1498-1503 (per Unger) or 1500-1502, except for this privy (per Pohl). This privy mark was struck in Nagybánya (now Baia Mare, Romania) in 1505 Ambrosius Literatus, kammergraf (per Pohl).
Huszar/Pohl rarity rating 3. This is a rare privy mark. According to Huszár and Pohl, there are one to three stars on the coins bearing this mark, on the obverse above and to the sides of the shield. The style of the Madonna’s robe and crown do not fit within Kaplan Subtypes A and B, and are assigned to a catch-all Subtype C.Stkp
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Huszár 807, Pohl 242-3, Unger 641c, Réthy II 272B. Kaplan Subtype C (unpublished)Hungary. Wladislaus II (Ulászló II in Hun.) (1490-1516). AR denar, 16 mm., .58 gr.
Obv: * WLADISLAI *R * VNGAR, Four-part shield with Hungarian arms (Árpádian stripes, patriarchal cross, Dalmatian leopard heads, Bohemian lion), Polish eagle with outstretched wings in center.
Rev: PATRO — N * R VNGAR, Crowned Madonna with infant Jesus to her right, n—A (privy mark) in fields.
The type was struck 1498-1503 (per Unger) or 1500-1502, except for this privy (per Pohl). This privy mark was struck in Nagybánya (now Baia Mare, Romania) in 1505 Ambrosius Literatus, kammergraf (per Pohl).
Huszar/Pohl rarity rating 3. This is a rare privy mark. According to Huszár and Pohl, there are one to three stars on the coins bearing this mark, apparently on the obverse above and the sides of the shield. They are absent from this coin, which is apparently an less common variant for the mark. The style of the Madonna’s robe and crown do not fit within Kaplan Subtypes A and B, and are assigned to a catch-all Subtype C.Stkp
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II-CARACALLA -d- 001 AE26 THRACIA/HADRIANOPOLLIS-Varbanv3591Av) AVT K M AVP CEV ANTΩNEINOC,
Laureated head right
Rv) AΔPIANOΠOΛEITΩN,
Triptolemos driving in biga, carried by two winged serpents, to the right. Triptolemos rising hand and seeding semens. In front of the biga Gaia is laying on the ground to the left, catching the semens, by spreading her cloths and holding two ears
Weight: 10.07 g; Ø: 26mm; Reference: Varbanov Bd II/page:295/3591;
Jurukova 363
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Ionia, Ephesus, AE 10mm, C. 400 - 300 BC.Ionia, Ephesus, AE 10mm.
Obv. Female head Left
Rev. Bee.
Ref.BMC 68-70
This was an easy cleaner, just a few soaks and brushes, then on with the wax... I have wanted one of these Ephesus coins for a while, so I was grinning ear to ear as the dirt washed away revealing a Bee ;D . Unfortunately it is quite "flat" being a small coin with a lick patina, so I can only get a decent photo on my fingers catching the light, and not with my usual set up, I am however delighted with it!Lee S
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Iran, Bisitun (Behistun), Kermanshah ProvinceOn the road from Hamadan (ancient Ekbatana) to the city of Kermanshah halfway up Mount Bisitun a number of unique bas reliefs from about 520 BC catch the eye. The Achaemenid king Dareios I (522 - 486 BC) had the largest one chiseled into the face of the mountain to tell the world of his triumph over his rival Gaumata and nine other rebels. The sensational part of the relief are the extensive cuneiform inscriptions above, below, and to the sides of the figures. They are in Elamite, Babylonian, and Old Persian, the latter a language which was created on the king’s order since up to then there was no written Persian language. The creation is a mixture of Elamite, Babylonian, and Aramaic. It was not deciphered until the middle of the 18th cent. AD by a British officer, adventurer, and amateur archeologist Sir Henry Rawlinson.
Schatz
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Italy, Pompeii - villa This is one of the more fashionable villas in town. Note the private garden area to the rear. The small pool in the foreground was for catching rainwater falling through a specially made hole in the roof. July 2008Mark Z
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Italy, Rome, The Column of Marcus Aurelius with Detail Memorializing the "Miracle in the Rain"The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits (visible in the middle photo) allow light into the internal stairway. The photo on the right shows detail memorializing the "Miracle in the Rain."
On June 11, 173, during the Marcomannic Wars (166–180), the Roman army in Moravia was outnumbered and surrounded by the Quadi, suffering from the extreme heat, out of water, and on the verge of defeat. Dio writes, "many clouds gathered and a mighty rain, not without divine interposition, burst upon them...when the rain poured down, at first all turned their faces upwards and received the water in their mouths; then some held out their shields and some their helmets to catch it, and they not only took deep draughts themselves but also gave their horses to drink...while those on the one side were being drenched and drinking, the others [the Quadi] were being consumed by fire [lightning] and dying." The Romans were soon victorious. Marcus was saluted imperator for the seventh time and the "miracle of the rain" was memorialized on Marcus Aurelius' column. In 174, Marcus Aurelius officially conferred the title Fulminata (Thundering) to the Legio XII Fulminata.
Photos by Adrian Pingstone released to the public domain.
Joe Sermarini
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum constructed by Flavius and seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outsideColosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Italy- Rome- Coliseum seen from outside 1Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. It was built by Emperor Vespasian and his son, Titus, between AD 72 and AD 90. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero which once stood nearby.
Construction
The construction of the Colosseum began under the Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand to sop up the blood.
The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena), and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people died in the Colosseum games.
History of the name Colosseum
The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. The link to Nero's colossus seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but "Flavian Amphitheatre" is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have gone for forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.
Description
The Colosseum measured 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow.
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators, and the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower class women.
Underneath the arena was the hypogeum (literally, "underground"), a network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. There were also numerous trap doors in the arena floor for the various animals hidden underneath. The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building. The entire base of the Colosseum was equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²).
A most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling system. It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors manipulated the ropes. The Colosseum also had vomitoria - passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the name.
Later history
The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered it was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; what the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis (one such family).
The Venerable Bede (c. 672-735) wrote
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; (As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome)
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma (When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome)
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus. (When Rome falls, so shall the world)
Note that he used coliseus, i.e. he made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use.
In 1749, as a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs. However, there is no historical evidence that Christians were tortured and killed in the Colosseum [2]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus.
In recent years, the local authorities of Rome have illuminated the Colosseum all night long whenever someone condemned to the death penalty gets commuted or released.
Peter Wissing
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Julia Mamaea, mother of Severus AlexanderObv: IVLIA MAMAEA AVG, draped bust of Julia Mamaea facing right.
Rev: IVNO CONSERVATRIX, Juno, diademed and veiled, standing left, holding a patera and scepter; at her feet a peacock stands with its head turned to catch drops out of patera.
Silver Denarius, Rome mint, 222 AD
3.2 grams, 19 mm, 0°
RIC IVii S. Alexander 343, RSC 35, S8212, VM 5Matt Inglima
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La Tene AE Celtic fibula, Fibula #065,Fibula #065, AE Celtic fibula,
type: Celtic fibula, A bronze celtic fibula of the La Tene period. Pin and half the spring broken off in antiquity. Fat body narrowing down to weak catch. Strong spring.
size: 62x20mm,
weight: 9,96g,
date: 1st century B.C. to 1st century A.D.,
ref: .,
distribution: ,
Q-001quadrans
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Labors Coin!Caracalla --AE27, Hadrianopolis. R: Herakles catching the Cerynean hind. cf Lischine Collection, 441 (different obverse type)featherz
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Marcus Aurelius RIC III, 163Marcus Aurelius AD 161-180
AR - Denar, 3.53g, 18.1mm, Rome summer-Dec. 166
obv. M ANTONINVS AVG ARM PARTH MAX, laureate head l.
rev. TRP XX IMP IIII COS III, Victoria standing facing, holding palmbranch in l., and with r. put shield with VIC PAR on a palmtree
RIC III, 163; C.878
The war against the Parthians AD 161-166:
The tension between Rome and the Parthians were growing due to the control over Armenia, the important buffer state, after the death of Antoninus and the uncertainties in Rome (two emperors!). Volagaeses III put his candidate on the throne. So Marc Aurel decided to send Lucius Verus, who has a bad reputation, and his best general Avidius Cassius. They succeded in catching and destroying towns and fortresses, f.e. Seleucia and Ctesiphon. The Roman advance was so quick that it reminds on Alexander the Great. AD 166 the Parthians surrendered and Rome could put his candidate on the Armenian throne. Jochen
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Moesia inferior, Nikopolis ad Istrum, 10. Commodus, HrHJ (2018) 8.10.38.21 corr.Commodus, AD 177-192
AE 18, 2.44g, 18.05mm, 210°
obv. AV KAI M A - YMODOC
Laureate head r.
rev. NEIKO - PROC CICT
Tyche, wearing kalathos, enthroned l., holding cornucopiae in l. arm and in extended r.
hand rudder
ref. a) not in AMNG
b) not in Varbanov
c) Hristova/Hoeft/Jekov (2018) No. 8.10.38.21 corr. (same die, different obv. legend)
rare, about VF, black-green patina
What immediately catches the eye is the clear Y at the beginning of the second part of the legend. This only occurs with the legends for Commodus at A - YR and the A at the end of the first legend part fits well. In the name KOMODOC the KO is missing and the M is only a stunted letter. Jochen
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PanAE27 Elagabalus (218-222)
Nikopolis ad Istrum, consular legate Novius Rufus
Obv: AVT K M AVPH ANTΩNINOC. Laur. draped and cuir. bust r.R
Rev: VÎ NOBIOV ROVΦOV NIKOÎ OΛITΩN Î PO; In ex: CICTPΩ· Pan, stg.r., horned, holding rabbitcatcher (lagobalon) over shoulder, flute in hand, foot on panther lying supile on the ground.
27 mm / Porosity
Moushmov 1436Gert
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RIC 0773 VespasianAR Denarius, 2.89g
Rome Mint, 75 AD
Obv: IMP CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG; Head of Vespasian, bare, l.
Rev: PON MAX TR P COS VI; Pax, bare to the waist, seated l., holding branch extended in r. hand, l. hand on lap
RIC 773 (R3). BMC -. RSC -. BNC -.
Acquired from eBay, November 2017.
Here is an interesting situation of an extremely rare obverse paired with the most common reverse type ever struck for Vespasian's denarii. The Pax type with the common laureate right portrait was struck in vast quantities to commemorate the opening of the Temple of peace. The bare head left portraits are seen sparingly (Buttrey - 'Fleetingly') on the denarii of 75 and 76 exclusively with the seated Pax reverse. This denarius is the second known specimen of the exceedingly rare bare head COS VI Pax from 75. Unsurprisingly, it shares obverse dies with the unique specimen cited in RIC. The bare head portraits seem to have been the experimental work of one engraver operating at the mint in 75/76. Too bad this portrait variant didn't catch on, it has a delightfully attractive spare elegance.
Struck in fine style and in good metal.David Atherton
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Roman Bow, Crossbow Fibula, Short Arm T-shaped Hinged Crossbow Fibula, #016,Fibula #016,
type: An early smaller sized crossbow type fibula with an integral small terminal at rear. Decoration of a few lines on catch. No terminals on crosspiece.,
size: 52x27mm,
weight: 11,92g,
date: A.D.,
ref: .,
distribution: ,
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Bow, Crossbow Fibula, Short Arm T-shaped Hinged Crossbow Fibula, #217,Roman Bow, Crossbow Fibula, Short Arm T-shaped Hinged Crossbow Fibula, #217,
type: An early smaller sized crossbow type fibula with an integral small terminal at rear. Decoration of a few lines on catch, and decorated Bow. Knob on the terminals on crosspiece and the head, hinge headed.
size: 66x48x25mm,
weight: 21,58g,
date: 4th. Centuries A.D.,
ref: Hattatt 102 variants,
distribution: Rome,
Q-217quadrans
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Roman Bow, Knee Fibula, Parallel Catch #004, AE, Parallel catch hinged knee fibula. Bojovic T-XXIII/212, Fibula #004, AE, Parallel catch hinged knee fibula. Bojovic T-XXIII/212,
type: Parallel catch hinged knee fibula, the bow has a near 90 degree bend.
size: 29x19mm, weight: 9,20g, date: c. A.D. 175-275. According to other sources 150-300 A.D.,
ref: Bojovic T-XXIII/212, distribution: Pannonia or Upper Moesia,
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Bow, Knee Fibula, Parallel Catch #094, AE, Parallel catch hinged knee fibula. Bojovic typ:22, var-9, Table-XXVI/248,Fibula #094, AE, Parallel catch hinged knee fibula. Bojovic typ:22, var-9, Table-XXVI/248,
type: Parallel catch hinged knee fibula, the bow has a near 90 degree bend.
Knee derived type. Triangular-profiled body with catchplate at 90° to body; catch plate rounded at bottom. Hinged pin housed in circular-profiled base. In that the body continues after reaching the hinge housing, curling under the body.
size:37,5x21,5x18mm, weight: 8,68g, date: c. A.D. 175-275. According to other sources 150-300 A.D.,
ref: Bojovic typ:22, var-9, Table-XXVI/248, distribution: Pannonia or Upper Moesia,
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Bow, Knee Fibula, Parallel Catch Fibula Silver #007, "Knee fibula with hinge and parallel catch", Bojovic T-XXIII/220,Fibula #007, AR, "Knee fibula with hinge and parallel catch", Bojovic T-XXIII/220,
type: Knee fibula variation,
size: 29x19mm, weight: 11,80g, date: 175-275 A.D. and/or 200-250 A.D.,
ref: Bojovic T-XXIII/220, distribution: Upper Moesia or Pannonia,
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Bow, Knee Fibula, Twin-Bow Fibula #006, AE, Twin-Bow Knee fibula variation, twin variant of Bojovic XXII.6Fibula #006, AE, Twin-Bow Knee fibula variation, twin variant of Bojovic XXII.6
type: Twin-Bow Knee fibula variation, a twin-bow version of a "Knee fibula with hinge and perpendicular catch".
size: 27x19mm, weight: 14,84g, date: 125-225 A.D., or 200-250 A.D.,
ref: best described as a twin variant of Bojovic XXII.6,
distribution: Pannonia or Upper Moesia,
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Bronze FishhookDate: circa 1st-3rd centuries AD
Size: 55 mm
In the De re coquinaria of Apicius – the only cookbook that has come down to us from antiquity – fish play a major part, but then Apicius was writing for an upper-class clientele, and his recipes do not reflect the diet of an average Roman. As fuel was expensive and many dwellings had no cooking facilities, a hot meal was often obtained from the cook shop on the corner: typically stew or soup based on vegetables and legumes, and bread or porridge to go with it.
The fish product most likely to be found in the average Roman kitchen or cookshop was garum, a sauce made from fermented fish and similar to the sauce known as umami or nuac, which is very popular throughout East Asia today. Garum was used to give flavor to stews, soups and many other dishes; it could also be eaten as a relish on bread.
Anchovies, hamsi and mackerel were among the fish species most often fermented to make sauce, but any fish could be used. Because the mix of fish going into the vats reflected the composition of local catches, there were important differences between garum from different production sites – important, at least, to Roman connoisseurs – and sauce from certain producers was highly prized (and priced). High quality fish sauce was bottled in labeled containers, transported over long distances and sold at high prices. The house of a garum wholesaler, Aulus Umbricius Scaurus, has been excavated in Pompeii.Noah
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Roman Bronze Phallic Knee Brooch. Circa 1st century A.D. UK metal detecting find from Cambridgeshire.The Knee Brooch is in wonderful condition and is complete with head plate, spring pin and catch plate.
Weight & Measurements: 11.62gr - 42mm x 17.5mm.
Provenance: UK metal detecting find from Cambridgeshire. Chris Scarlioli Collection.Christian Scarlioli
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Roman Plate, Openwork Plate Fibula, Pelta form Fibula #010Fibula #010
type: Openwork Plate Fibula. Pelta form of Roman openwork plate fibula.,
Front and back of a Pelta form openwork plate fibula. The foot and catch bear resemblance to contemporary knee fibula types. The crescent holes resemble one style contemporary Roman military belt fittings.
size: 41x31mm,
weight: 14,82g,
date: c.175-225 A.D.,
ref: Böhme 47; Genceva 31c.,
distribution: German Limes, but also found in Upper Danube region.
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Plate, Openwork Plate Fibula, Pelta form of Roman openwork plate fibula, Fibula # 037,Roman Plate, Openwork Plate Fibula, Pelta form of Roman openwork plate fibula, Fibula # 037,
Front and back of a Pelta form openwork plate fibula. The fron are decorated with "eyes" . The foot and catch bear resemblance to contemporary knee fibula types. The crescent holes resemble one style contemporary Roman military belt fittings.
size: 31x31mm,
weight: 9,95g,
date: c.175-225 A.D.,
ref: ,
distribution: German Limes, but also found in Upper Danube region.
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Plate, Skeuomorphic Plate, Cornucopia Fibula, Genceva 27b., Fibula #011, Fibula #011
type: A Roman Skeuomorphic plate fibula. Cornucopia fibula. Genceva 27b.
Skeuomorphic means "shaped like a real object"
This single cornucopia fibula once had a spring (not a hinge). The plaque, or lug, on the underside has a small notch in it which was for the spring-chord while the axis-pin of the spring itself passed through the hole in the plaque, which is still full of bronze corrosion. The catch is all and is set perpendicular to the axis of the fibula. It is can be dated to circa AD 175 - 250.
size: 45x24mm,
weight: 11,51g,
date: 175-250 A.D.,
ref: Genceva 27b.,
distribution: Danube, especially Serbia and northwestern Pannonia.
Q-001quadrans
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Roman Single Knot Type Kraftig Profilierte Brooch.Nice and complete large Bronze Roman Single Knot Type Kraftig Profilierte Brooch with a solid catch & gorgeous green patina. Spring bow with high arch, and knob at the end of the foot. Circa 1st century A.D. From the Rhine & Danube Limes area.
Weight & Measurements: 16.22gr, L61.6mm x W20.7mm x H25mm.
Ref: Almgren 69; Riha 2.9.4; Genceva 9c; Cambodunum 3.
Provenance: Ex Plamen Rusev.Christian Scarlioli
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Selinus in Cilicia, Philippus I., AE 29, ApolloSelinus in Cilicia, Philippus I., AE 29, 244-249 AD
Obv.: AY K M IOYΛ [ΦI]ΛΠΠOC CE , Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust right (seen from behind
Rev.: TPAIANO[ΠCEΛINO]YCI ΘHC [IEPAC] , Apollo standing front, patera in his right hand, rod/staff in left hand, on right side: bird (raven?) beneath
SNG France 2,686; SNG Levante 467; Lindgren I,1595; SNG Pfalz 6,1105 , (thanks to Markus for ID)
Selinus: City in Cilicia Aspera, among the principal ones on this coast and mentioned by most of the ancient geographers from Pseudo-Skylax on. It was one of the towns taken by Antiochos III in 197 B.C. (Livy 33.20), but is best known as the place where Trajan died in A.D. 117 on his way back from the East. Then it took the name of Trajanopolis (as on this), but the old one prevailed (as on this), shown by coins and other documents.
In mid-summer 117, when Trajan was returning from his Parthian campaigns, he fell ill while at Selinus in Cilicia and died on August 8. The following day his adoption of Hadrian was announced by Plotina and Attianus, the praetorian prefect who had earlier been Hadrian's guardian, with some question whether Trajan had indeed performed the act or whether it was posthumous, thanks to his widow. On August 11, which he considered his dies imperii, the army of Syria hailed its legate, Hadrian, as emperor, which made the senate's formal acceptance an almost meaningless event. This was an example of the historian Tacitus' famous dictum that an emperor could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Hadrian must then have proceeded to Selinus at once from Antioch, to catch up with Attianus, Plotina, and Matidia. He then returned to his province no later than September and stayed there at least into the new year, consolidating his administration.
Basil,of Seleucia (Vita S. Theclae, II, 17) said that the city cof Selinus, which was formerly of much importance, lost it from his time to the fifth century. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, in the tenth century, called it a small town. Today it is the little village of Selinti (near the city GazipaÅŸa) in the vilayet of Adana; there are ruins of a theatre, aqueduct, market-place, bath, etc. .
The coinage begins under the kingdom of Antiochos IV of Kommagene, and continues later from Trajan to Philip. A bishop of Selinos is recorded, under the metropolitan of Seleukeia. . Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 1019) names four bishops: Neon, present at the council of Constantinople, 381; Alypius, at Ephesus, 431; AElianus, at Chalcedon, 451; Gheon, signer of the letter of the bishops of the province to Emperor Leo, 458. The see is in the Greek "Notitiae Episcopatuum" of the Patriarchate of Antioch from the fifth to the tenth century (Vailhé in "Echos d'Orient", X, 95, 145). It was also perhaps an Armenian bishopric until the tenth century. (Alishan, Sissouan, Venice, 1899, p. 60). Eubel (Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, I, 468) names a Latin bishop in 1345.
my ancient coin database
Arminius
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Sestertius IVNO CONSERVATRIXObverse: "IVLI"AMAMAEAAVG
Bust right, drape, wearing stephane
Reverse: "IVNO"CONSERVATRIX, S and C, left and right, low in field.
Juno veiled draped standing front, head left, holding patera in extended right hand and vertical sceptre in left; to the left, peakcock standing front, body inclined left, head turned to catch drops from patera
BMC 51 (Plate 2), RIC 686
Weight, 20.32g; die axis, 12hmix_val
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Thracia, Hadrianopolis, pseudo-autonomous, Mionnet Suppl. II, 604AE 18, 2.77g, 17.56mm, 210°
obv. TON KTI - CTHN
bearded head of Herakles, r.
rev. ADRIANO - POLEITW[N]
Herakles, nude, stg. l., has catched the Lernean Hydra with l. hand and swings his club with r. hand aloft
to smash the Hydra.; r. behind his quiver and bow.
ref. Mionnet Suppl. II, 604
very rare, about VF, green patina
For more information look at the thread 'Mythological interesting coins'
Jochen
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