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Adrianus

Antonivs Protti

MOEDA - 500 Réis - 1938 - Regente Feijó
________________________________________
Série Ilustres
Excelente estado de conservação

ANVERSO
O busto do Regente do Império Diogo António Feijó circundado pela inscrição REGENTE FEIJÓ. Em baixo, monograma do gravador Calmon Barreto.

REVERSO
No centro, uma coluna coríntia encimada pela inscrição circular BRASIL entre dois filetes. À esquerda do campo, o valor 500 e, à direita, a palavra RÉIS em posição horizontal. No exergo, a data e, ao lado direito, a sigla do gravador Walter Toledo.

PADRÃO MONETÁRIO
MIL-RÉIS (de 08/10/1833 a 31/10/1942)

PERÍODO POLÍTICO
República, Era Vargas (1930-1945)

ORIGEM
Casa da Moeda, Rio de Janeiro

CARACTERÍSTICAS
Material: bronze alumínio
Diâmetro: 22,5 mm
Peso: 5,00 g
Espessura: 1,80 mm
Bordo: serrilhado
Titulagem: Cu 910, Al 90
Eixo: reverso medalha (EV)
_____________________Antonivs Protti

Moeda Brasil 1935- 1000 Reis
Serie Ilustres - Padre Anchieta
Módulo Maior - Escassa
________________________________

ANVERSO
Efígie do Padre José de Anchieta, de perfil, onde
se ostenta a inscrição vertical ANCHIETA.
Missionário e fundador de São Paulo.
Sigla do gravador Calmon Barreto.

REVERSO
No centro, um livro aberto e o valor 1000 réis em
semicírculo. Sob o valor, a data. No exergo, a palavra
BRASIL. Sigla do gravador Walter Toledo.

PADRÃO MONETÁRIO
MIL-RÉIS (de 08/10/1833 a 31/10/1942)

PERÍODO POLÍTICO
República, Era Vargas (1930-1945)

ORIGEM
Casa da Moeda, Rio de Janeiro

CARACTERÍSTICAS
Material: bronze alumínio
Diâmetro: 26,7 mm
Peso: 8,00 g
Espessura: 2,10 mm
Bordo: serrilhadoAntonivs Protti

Roman
Republican

Naevia 80 b.C. -ag/ denarius

Roman Republic

ag/ denarius

Crw. 382/1a Syd. 769
gr. 3,80paul1888

BOEOTIA Federal coinage Drachm (AR; 17-19mm; 5.48g) c. 304-294 bc. Boeotian shield. Rev. Δ – I Amphora and above pellet within incuse square.
BCD Boeotia 69; Head p. 57; McClean p. 314, 5513; SNG Delepierre 1298; SNG Lockett 1775; Traité III p. 267, 287 and pl. 202.26; Weber p. 317, 3328 and pl. 125.
Ex Gemini VI, New York Sunday, January 10, 2010, lot 113.
Ex: CNG Electronic Auction 148, September 20, 2006, lot 12, BCD collection.
Ex KURPFÄLZISCHE MÜNZHANDLUNG, Mannheim, Germany
1984: no 27, 12 Dec.
Ex: Numismatic Fine Arts, Inc., Publication No. 12, January-February 1979, Lot 271 commentspaul1888

#L. Thorius Balbus. 105 BC. AR DenariusRome mint. ISMR behind, head of Juno Sospita right, wearing goat skin headdress / L THORIVS below, BALBVS in exergue, bull charging right.

"The obverse refers to the the cult of Juno Sospita at Lanuvium, the moneyer's birthplace. The reverse is likely a play on the moneyer's name (Taurus sounds like Thorius). Cicero described L. Thorius Balbus as a man who lived in such a manner that there was not a single pleasure, however refined or rare, that he did not enjoy. This is one of the most common republican denarii." -- Roman Silver Coins edited by David Sear and Robert Loosleyancientone

"As de Nîmes" or "crocodile" Ӕ dupondius of Nemausus (9 - 3 BC), honoring Augustus and AgrippaIMP DIVI F , Heads of Agrippa (left) and Augustus (right) back to back, Agrippa wearing rostral crown and Augustus the oak-wreath / COL NEM, crocodile right chained to palm-shoot with short dense fronds and tip right; two short palm offshoots left and right below, above on left a wreath with two long ties streaming right.

Ó”, 24.5 x 3+ mm, 13.23g, die axis 3h; on both sides there are remains of what appears to be gold plating, perhaps it was a votive offering? Rough edges and slight scrapes on flan typical for this kind of coin, due to primitive technology (filing) of flan preparation.

IMPerator DIVI Filius. Mint of COLonia NEMausus (currently Nîmes, France). Known as "As de Nîmes", it is actually a dupontius (lit. "two-pounder") = 2 ases (sometimes cut in halves to get change). Dupondii were often made out of a golden-colored copper alloy (type of brass) "orichalcum" and this appears to be such case.

Key ID points: oak-wreath (microphotography shows that at least one leaf has a complicated shape, although distinguishing oak from laurel is very difficult) – earlier versions have Augustus bareheaded, no PP on obverse as in later versions, no NE ligature, palm with short fronds with tip right (later versions have tip left and sometimes long fronds). Not typical: no clear laurel wreath together with the rostral crown, gold (?) plating (!), both features really baffling.

But still clearly a "middle" kind of the croc dupondius, known as "type III": RIC I 158, RPC I 524, Sear 1730. It is often conservatively dated to 10 BC - 10 AD, but these days it is usually narrowed to 9/8 - 3 BC.

It is a commemorative issue, honoring the victory over Mark Antony and conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The heads of Augustus and Agrippa were probably positioned to remind familiar obverses of Roman republican coins with two-faced Janus. Palm branch was a common symbol of victory, in this case grown into a tree, like the victories of Augustus and Agrippa grown into the empire. The two offshoots at the bottom may mean two sons of Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius, who were supposed to be Augustus' heirs and were patrons of the colony. Palm may also be a symbol of the local Nemausian deity, which was probably worshiped in a sacred grove. When these coins were minted, the colony was mostly populated by the settled veterans of Augustus' campaigns, hence the reminiscence of the most famous victory, but some of the original Celtic culture probably survived and was assimilated by Romans. The crocodile is not only the symbol of Egypt, like in the famous Octavian's coins AEGYPTO CAPTA. It is also a representation of Mark Antony, powerful and scary both in water and on land, but a bit slow and stupid. The shape of the crocodile with tail up was specifically chosen to remind of the shape of ship on very common "legionary" denarius series, which Mark Antony minted to pay his armies just before Actium. It is probably also related to the popular contemporary caricature of Cleopatra, riding on and simultaneously copulating with a crocodile, holding a palm branch in her hand as if in triumph. There the crocodile also symbolized Mark Antony.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was born c. 64-62 BC somewhere in rural Italy. His family was of humble and plebeian origins, but rich, of equestrian rank. Agrippa was about the same age as Octavian, and the two were educated together and became close friends. He probably first served in Caesar's Spanish campaign of 46–45 BC. Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to train in Illyria. When Octavian returned to Rome after Caesar's assassination, Agrippa became his close lieutenant, performing many tasks. He probably started his political career in 43 BC as a tribune of the people and then a member of the Senate. Then he was one of the leading Octavian's generals, finally becoming THE leading general and admiral in the civil wars of the subsequent years.

In 38 as a governor of Transalpine Gaul Agrippa undertook an expedition to Germania, thus becoming the first Roman general since Julius Caesar to cross the Rhine. During this foray he helped the Germanic tribe of Ubii (who previously allied themselves with Caesar in 55 BC) to resettle on the west bank of the Rhine. A shrine was dedicated there, possibly to Divus Caesar whom Ubii fondly remembered, and the village became known as Ara Ubiorum, "Altar of Ubians". This quickly would become an important Roman settlement. Agrippina the Younger, Agrippa's granddaughter, wife of Emperor Claudius and mother of Emperor Nero, would be born there in 15 AD. In 50 AD she would sponsor this village to be upgraded to a colonia, and it would be renamed Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (colony of Claudius [at] the Altar of Agrippinians – Ubii renamed themselves as Agrippinians to honor the augusta!), abbreviated as CCAA, later to become the capital of new Roman province, Germania Inferior.

In 37 BC Octavian recalled Agrippa back to Rome and arranged for him to win the consular elections, he desperately needed help in naval warfare with Sextus Pompey, the youngest son of Pompey the Great, who styled himself as the last supporter of the republican cause, but in reality became a pirate king, an irony since his father was the one who virtually exterminated piracy in all the Roman waters. He forced humiliating armistice on the triumvirs in 39 BC and when Octavian renewed the hostilities a year later, defeated him in a decisive naval battle of Messina. New fleet had to be built and trained, and Agrippa was the man for the job. Agrippa's solution was creating a huge secret naval base he called Portus Iulius by connecting together lakes Avernus, Avernus and the natural inner and outer harbors behind Cape Misenum at the northern end of the Gulf of Naples. He also created a larger type of ship and developed a new naval weapon: harpax – a ballista-launched grapnel shot with mechanisms that allowed pulling enemy ships close for easy boarding. It replaced the previous boarding device that Romans used since the First Punic War, corvus – effective, but extremely cumbersome. A later defence against it were scythe blades on long poles for cutting ropes, but since this invention was developed in secret, the enemy had no chance to prepare anything like it. It all has proved extremely effective: in a series of naval engagements Agrippa annihilated the fleet of Sextus, forced him to abandon his bases and run away. For this Agrippa was awarded an unprecedented honour that no Roman before or after him received: a rostral crown, "corona rostrata", a wreath decorated in front by a prow and beak of a ship.

That's why Virgil (Aeneid VIII, 683-684), describing Agrippa at Actium, says: "…belli insigne superbum, tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona." "…the proud military decoration, gleams on his brow the naval rostral crown". Actium, the decisive battle between forces of Octavian and Mark Antony, may appear boring compared to the war with Sextus, but it probably turned out this way due to Agrippa's victories in preliminary naval engagements and taking over all the strategy from Octavian.

In between the wars Agrippa has shown an unusual talent in city planning, not only constructing many new public buildings etc., but also greatly improving Rome's sanitation by doing a complete overhaul of all the aqueducts and sewers. Typically, it was Augustus who later would boast that "he had found the city of brick but left it of marble", forgetting that, just like in his naval successes, it was Agrippa who did most of the work. Agrippa had building programs in other Roman cities as well, a magnificent temple (currently known as Maison Carrée) survives in Nîmes itself, which was probably built by Agrippa.

Later relationship between Augustus and Agrippa seemed colder for a while, Agrippa seemed to even go into "exile", but modern historians agree that it was just a ploy: Augustus wanted others to think that Agrippa was his "rival" while in truth he was keeping a significant army far away from Rome, ready to come to the rescue in case Augustus' political machinations fail. It is confirmed by the fact that later Agrippa was recalled and given authority almost equal to Augustus himself, not to mention that he married Augustus' only biological child. The last years of Agrippa's life were spent governing the eastern provinces, were he won respect even of the Jews. He also restored Crimea to Roman Empire. His last service was starting the conquest of the upper Danube, were later the province of Pannonia would be. He suddenly died of illness in 12 BC, aged ~51.

Agrippa had several children through his three marriages. Through some of his children, Agrippa would become ancestor to many subsequent members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He has numerous other legacies.Yurii P

"C" Denarius, Crawford 107/1a - My favorite CoinDenomination: Denarius
Era: c. 209-208 BC
Metal: AR
Obverse: Helmeted head of Roma r. with splayed visor; “X” behind; Border of dots
Reverse: Dioscuri r.; Above, “C”; in linear frame, “ROMA”.
Mint: Etruia(?)
Weight: 4.44 gm.
Reference: Crawford 107/1a
Provenance: NAC 61; 25-OCT-2011, Privately purchased by RBW from CNG in 1989

Comments: This is one of my favorite coins. It is not high grade, neither the obverse nor the reverse is well centered. The dioscuri are really just blobs, and this coin would be overlooked in any sale but the NAC 61 sale of RBW’s finest and rarest coins, perhaps the greatest Roman Republican auction of our generation. Nevertheless, the coin has a lovely tone and a style that is very characteristic of this issue which is quite rare.

Unique to this variety and the related staff issue, are the braided locks extending from the helmet to the hair binding. The stars are simple dots above the dioscuri, and ROMA is cut into the die with very large letters with a very fine line tool. There has been much speculation on the significance of the “C” insignia, but few with any real merit.
1 comments

(500a) Roman Republic, 119 BC, M. Furius Philius - Furia 18Roman Republic, 119 BC, M. Furius Philius - Furia 18. Crawford 281/1, Sydenham 529; 19mm, 3.23 grams. aVF, Rome; Obverse: laureate head of Janus, M FORVRI L F around; Reverse: Roma standing left erecting trophy, Galic arms around, PHLI in exergue. Ex Ephesus Numismatics.

Gauis Marius
As a novus homo, or new man, Marius found the rise in the Roman cursus honorum ( "course of honours"-- the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic) a daunting challenge. It is certain that he used his old family client contacts and his military relations as a source of support. Among these contacts were the powerful Metelli family, and their early support was to prove to be a disaster for them. Just a few short years after his service as Quaestor, Marius was elected Tribune of the Plebes in 119 BC. In this position so soon after the political turmoil and murder of the Gracchi brothers (Gaius murdered 123 BC), Marius chose to follow the populares path, making a name for himself under similar auspices. As Tribune, he would ensure the animosity of the conservative faction of the Senate, and the Metelli, by passing popular laws forbidding the inspection of ballot boxes. In do doing, he directly opposed the powerful elite, who used ballot inspection as a way to intimidate voters in the citizen assembly elections.

Marius would go on to be elected Consul seven times and figure prominantly in the civil unrest of the early eighties as Lucius Cornelius Sulla's opponent. In 88 BC, Sulla had been elected Consul. There was now a choice before the Senate about which general to send to Asia (a potentially lucrative command): either Marius or Sulla. The Senate chose Sulla, but soon the Assembly appointed Marius. In this unsavory episode of low politics, Marius had been helped by the unscrupulous actions of Publius Sulpicius Rufus, whose debts Marius had promised to erase. Sulla refused to acknowledge the validity of the Assembly's action.

Sulla left Rome and traveled to "his"army waiting in Nola, the army the Senate had asked him to lead to Asia. Sulla urged his legions to defy the Assembly's orders and accept him as their rightful leader. Sulla was successful, and the legions murdered the representatives from the Assembly. Sulla then commanded six legions to march with him opon Rome and institute a civil war.

This was a momentous event, and was unforeseen by Marius, as no Roman army had ever marched upon Rome—it was forbidden by law and ancient tradition.

Sulla was to eventually rule Rome as Dictator. In his book Rubicon, historian Tom Holland argues that Sulla's actions had no lasting negative effect upon the health of the Republic, that Sulla was at heart a Republican. However, once a Roman general has defied Republican tradition, once a Roman general has used his command to combat fellow Romans, once a Roman general has set-up himself as Dictator--it follows that the decision to replicate these decsions (think: Caesar and Rubicon) is that much more easiely taken.

J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

Cleisthenes

(503f) Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus Silver DenariusCn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus Silver Denarius, Sear-323, Cr-393/1a, Syd-752, RSC-Cornelia 54, struck 76-75 BC at Spanish Mint, 3.94 grams, 18 mm. EF. Obverse: GPR above Diademed, draped and bearded bust of the Genius of the Roman People facing right, sceptre over shoulder; Reverse: EX in left field, SC in right field; CN LEN Q in exergue, Sceptre with wreath, terrestrial globe and rudder. An exceptional example that is especially well centered and struck on a slightly larger flan than normally encountered with fully lustrous surfaces and a most attractive irridescent antique toning. Held back from the Superb EF/FDC by a small banker's mark in the right obverse field, but still worthy of the finest collection of Roman Republican denarii. Ex Glenn Woods.

Re: CORNELIA 54:

“Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus may be the same moneyer whose issues have been already described (no.s 702-704). Mommsen suggested that these coins were struck in 74 B.C. as a special issue, authorized by the Senate, to defray the cost of armaments against Mithridates of Pontus and the Mediterranean pirates. But Grueber’s view that they were struck in 76 B.C. by Cn. Cornelius Lentulus acting in the capacity of quaestor of Pompey, seems more in accordance with the evidence of finds" (see: G. ii, p. 359n and The Coinage of the Roman Republic, by Edward A. Sydenham, 1976, pgs. 1).

H. A. Seaby shows the coin with the smaller head (Roman Silver Coins Vol. I, Republic to Augustus pg. 33) while David R Sear shows a coin sporting a larger version (Roman Coins and Their Values, pg. 132).

“Cn. Lentulus strikes in Spain in his capacity as quaestor to the proconsul Pompey, who had been sent to the peninsula to assist Q. Caecillus Metellus Piusagainst sertorius”(Roman Coins and Their Values, by David Sear, Vol.1, 2000, pg. 132).

This is not an imperatorial minted coin for Pompey. At the time these coins were minted the Procounsel Pompey was sent to Spain to aid in the war against Sertorius. The moneyer Cn Lentulus served as his Quaestor where he continued to mint coins for Rome.

CN = Cneaus; LEN = Lentulus

Cneaus was his first name. His last, or family name is Lentulus and this clan is a lesser clan within the Cornelii, which is what his middle name of Cornelius implies.

Q = This tells us that he was a Quaestor, or Roman magistrate with judicial powers at the time when the coin was issued, with the responsibility for the treasury. Had this been a position that he once held it would be noted on the coin as PROQ or pro [past] Questor.

For Further Reading on the Cornelia 54 & 55:

Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, by H. A. Grueber. London, 1910, Vol. II, pgs. 358, 359, 52, 57

Roman Silver Coins Vol. I, Republic to Augustus, by H.A.Seaby 1952, pgs. 32-33

The Coinage of the Roman Republic, by Edward A. Sydenham, 1976, pgs. 122, 241

Roman Coins and Their Values, by David Sear, Vol.1, 2000, pg. 132, 133

Roman Republican Coinage Volume I by Michael H. Crawford 2001, pg. 407

by Jerry Edward Cornelius, April 2006, THE 81 ROMAN COINS OF THE CORNELIA
http://www.cornelius93.com/Cornelia54.html1 commentsCleisthenes

-R-07-01 â€“ P.SERVILIUS M.F. RULLUS (100 A.C.)FALSIFICACIÓN ANCIANA,
Denario Forrado 18 mm 3.1 gr

Anv: Busto de Minerva a izquierda, vistiendo yelmo corintio con penacho y aegis – ”RVLLI” detrás.
Rev: Victoria montada en una viga, encabritados sus caballos, a derecha, portando hoja de palma en mano izquierda, "P” debajo (esta P=público parece ser la última forma de abreviar EX ARGENTO PVBLICO y estaría marcando que esta moneda estaba acuñada en plata retirada de la Tesorería Pública y por consiguiente era una emisión especial). ”P SERVILI M F” en el exergo.

Ceca: No Oficial
Referencias: Sear RCTV Vol.1 #207 Pag.112 - Craw RRC #328/1 - Syd CRR #601 - BMCRR #1672 - RSC Vol.1 Servilia 14 Pag.88
mdelvalle

00 - 01 - Marco Junio BrutoMarcus Junius Brutus, al ser adoptado por su Tío toma el nombre de Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus

AR Denario 18,00 mm de 3,60 gr.

Anv: "BRVTVS", Busto a cabeza desnuda de Lucio Junio Bruto a der.
1er.Consul y fundador de la República Romana en el 509 A.C., luego de participar activamente en la conspiración para derrocar a Tarquino "El Soberbio", último Rey de Roma
Rev: "AHALA", Busto a cabeza desnuda de Cayo Servilio Ahala a der.
Magister Equitum (Maestro de caballos) en el 439 D.C., autor del magnicidio del Dictador Espurio Melio en defensa de la República auque muchos autores atribuyen este asesinato a su deseo de convertirse en Rey de Roma

Acuñada por, quizás, el mas famosos de los asesinos de Julio Cesar, unos 10 años antes y a la edad de 31 años cuando desempeñaba uno de sus primeros cargos públicos como Magistrado Monetario. A travéz de esta moneda se atribuye la descendencia paterna de Lucio Junio Bruto y Materna de Cayo Servilio Ahala, dos defensores de la República y magnicidas; además muestra su fuerte defensa de la Res Pública, oposición a la tiranía y convencimiento que existía el homicidio justificable, valores que pondría mas tarde en práctica.
También se cree que esta moneda es una advertencia a Pompeyo "El Grande", quien tenía intensiones de convertirse en Dictador.

Acuñada durante los años 54 A.C. (s/RRC) ó 59 A.C. (s/BMCRR)
Ceca: Roma.

Referencias: Craw.RRC 433/2 - Syd. CRR #907 - BMCRR Roma #3864 - RSC vol.I #Junia 30, p.56 y #Servilia 17, p.89 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #398, p.149 - Albert #1362 - Mabbott #4079 - Catalli #617, p.2001 - Vagi #82 - Harlan RRM #3-4, pag.20mdelvalle

001f. CatoMarcus Porcius Cato, known as Cato Minor or Cato Uticensis was a senator and tribune, famed for his oratory. He was the major political foe of Julius Caesar, supporting Pompey and continuing his political opposition after Pompey's death. After a string of defeats by the republican forces, he committed suicide in April 46 BC.

Coin: AR Quinarius. 13mm, 1.79 g. 47-46 BC, mint at Utica. Obv: M • CATO • PRO • PR, wreathed head of Liber right. Rev: VICTRIX, Victory seated right, holding patera. Cr462/2, Syd 1054, Porcia 11.lawrence c

0038 - Denarius Hadrian 119 ACObv/IMP CAESAR TRAIAN HADRIANVS AVG, Hadrian head laureate r., draped on l. shoulder.
Rev/PM TR P COS III, VOT PUB in field, Pietas veiled standing r. raising both hands.

Ag, 18.7mm, 2.63g
Mint: Rome.
RIC II/141b [C] - BMCRE 324 - RCV 3549 - RSC 1477
ex-Valencia Coin Market, 20 may 2007dafnis

01-01 - As Emision Anonima (211 - 206 A.C.)AE AS 34 mm 34.1 gr
Anv: Cabeza bifronte barbada y laureada de Jano - "I" (Marca de valor = 1 AS) sobre la cabeza.
Rev: Proa de galera a derecha - "ROMA" debajo e "I" en campo derecho.

Ceca: Roma
Referencias: Sear RCTV Vol.1 #627 Pag.191 - Craw RRC #56/2 - Syd CRR #143 - BMCRR #217mdelvalle

016c01. AntinousLead tessera, Antinoopolis(?) mint, weight 4.994g, maximum diameter 23.8mm, die axis 180o, c. 130 - 153 A.D.; obverse draped bust of Antinous right, wearing hem-hem crown of Harpocrates, large crescent before with horns left; reverse Nilus reclining right on sphinx, reed in his left hand curling up behind his shoulder and head, cornucopia before him in left hand; Euthenia on right, standing left, crowning Nilus with a wreath; ex Classical Numismatic Group e-auction 476 (9 Sep 2020), lot 287; ex BLS Collection. A Forum coin.

This token type is illustrated and discussed in "Tokens of Antinous from the Roman province of Egypt" by DENISE WILDING in CLARE ROWAN, editor, Tokens: Culture, Connections, Communities, Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication No. 57. ISBN 0 901405 35 3

lawrence c

056/4 Subgroup 85 & 86A AE TriensAnonymous. Ae Triens. Apulia. 212-208 BC. (9.08 g, 23.72 g) Obv: Helmeted head of Minerva right, four pellets above. Rev: ROMA, prow right, four pellets below.

Originally defined as Crawford 56/4, this type of Triens have been assigned to subgroup 85 & 86A. This is a Q or H triens, that is missing the Q or H. Andrew McCabe gives the subgroup the number F1 which has the following characteristics:

"Mint: Apulia. Second Punic war. Related to RRC 85 H, and RRC 86 anchor and Q. Obverses are in high relief. The general style, for examples Janus, or Hercules’ truncation, or the regular reverse prow, is like RRC 86 anchor and Q. Reverses of Sextans and Quadrans have either regular, or Luceria style, prows with a club in an elevated fighting platform. On regular reverses, the top and central keel lines join half way across prow. Flans are thin and broad akin to late issues of Luceria. All denominations As through Sextans are known."

"The regular reverse prow is tall (height/width) with a fighting platform and deck structure elevated more than usual, and there is always a line extending either side of the deck structure. The keel-lines are also distinctive, with the middle of the three lines always converging with the top line half way across the prow... These specific design features – especially the middle keel line converging with the upper line half way across the prow – are identical with and typical of the RRC 86A Q series from Apulia58... The obverses of all denominations are in high relief, and show high quality engraving."

"So a close geographic and timing link between the Anchor Q, H, L, L-T, CA and P coins can be posited. These coins are certainly a second Punic war issue from Apulia. It remains open for discussion which city minted these group F1 coins, presumably alongside the RRC 85 and RRC 86 issues."

This is one out of six specimens: "F1 Triens: 6 coins, mean 9.4 grams, heaviest 10.5 grams".

All quotes are from the work of Andrew McCabe.

Link to thread at Forvm Ancient Coins: http://www.forumancientcoins.com/board/index.php?topic=90604.0

On this topic at Andrew McCabe's homepage: http://andrewmccabe.ancients.info/RRC056.html

I would strongly recommend anyone who wants to learn more about Roman Republican coins to give Andrew McCabe's homepage a visit.

1 commentsPaddy

079 B.C., Ti. Claudius Nero, Republic AR-Denarius Serratus, Crawford 383/1, Rome, Denarius serratus, A•CXXIIII// TI•CLAUD•TI•F/AP•N, Victory in biga right, #1 079 B.C., Ti. Claudius Nero, Republic AR-Denarius Serratus, Crawford 383/1, Rome, Denarius serratus, A•CXXIIII// TI•CLAUD•TI•F/AP•N, Victory in biga right, #1
avers: Bust of Diana r., draped, with bow and quiver over shoulder, before S•C, Border of dots.
reverse: Victory in biga right, holding wreath in right hand and reins and palm-branch in the left hand, below, control-letter "A" and dot on the right and numeral A•CXXIIII// TI•CLAUD•TI•F/AP•N (VD and AP are ligated).
exergue: A•CXXIIII// TI•CLAVD•TI•F/AP•N (VD and AP are ligated), diameter: 18mm, weight: 3,79g, axis: 4h,
mint: Rome, date 79 B.C., ref: Crawford 383/1, Sydenham 770a, Claudia 6,
Q-001 1 commentsquadrans

0797 Tetricus II - BI antoninianusTrier
273 - sprng 274 AD
4th emission
radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right from behind
C PIV ESV TETRICVS CAES
Spes advancing left, extending flower in right, raising skirt drapery with left
SPES__P_VBLICA
RIC V 272; AGK 10; Cohen 97
2,4g 16mm
ex Gitbud & NaumannJ. B.

083 Trebonianus Gallus (251-253 A.D.), Rome, RIC IV-III 034, AR-Antoninianus, FELICITAS PUBLICA, Felicitas standing left, #1083 Trebonianus Gallus (251-253 A.D.), Rome, RIC IV-III 034, AR-Antoninianus, FELICITAS PUBLICA, Felicitas standing left, #1
avers: IMP GAL C VIB TREB GALLVS AVG, Radiate, draped bust right,
reverse: FELICITAS PUBLICA, Felicity standing left with caduceus and cornucopia, star in right field.
exergue: -/-//--, diameter: 21,0-22,0 mm, weight: 3,97 g, axis: 0 h,
mint: Rome, date: 251 A.D.,
ref: RIC IV-III 034,
Q-001quadrans

09-01 - P.SERVILIUS M.F. RULLUS (100 A.C.)FALSIFICACIÓN ANCIANA
Denario Forrado 18 mm 3.1 gr

Anv: Busto de Minerva a izquierda, vistiendo yelmo corintio con penacho y aegis – ”RVLLI” detrás.
Rev: Victoria montada en una viga, encabritados sus caballos, a derecha, portando hoja de palma en mano izquierda, "P” debajo (esta P=público parece ser la última forma de abreviar EX ARGENTO PVBLICO y estaría marcando que esta moneda estaba acuñada en plata retirada de la Tesorería Pública y por consiguiente era una emisión especial). ”P SERVILI M F” en el exergo.

Ceca: No Oficial

Referencias: Sear RCTV Vol.1 #207 Pag.112 - Craw RRC #328/1 - Syd CRR #601 - BMCRR #1672 - RSC Vol.1 Servilia 14 Pag.88mdelvalle

096 B.C. A.Postumius S.f. Albinus, Republic AR-Denarius, Crawford 335/10b, Rome, Dioscuri watering horse left, Crescent above, A•ALBINVS•S•F•, #1, Rare !!!096 B.C. A.Postumius S.f. Albinus, Republic AR-Denarius, Crawford 335/10b, Rome, Dioscuri watering horse left, Crescent above, A•ALBINVS•S•F•, #1, Rare !!!
avers: Laureate head of Apollo right, behind star below R, before X, border of dots.
reverse: Dioscuri watering horse (left) at the fountain of Juturna, in left field crescent above, border of dots.
exergue: -/-//A•ALBINVS•S•F•, diameter: 17,0-19,0mm, weight: 3,76g, axis: 5h,
mint: Rome, date:096 B.C., ref: Syd-612b, Crawford-335/10b, Postumia 6., Rare !!!
Q-001
"This issue is said to relate to the battle of Lake Regillius; the Roman army was commanded by A. Postumius Albus. Legend says that the Dioscuri were said to have assisted the Romans in obtaining the victory; the reverse of shows the Dioscuri watering their horses at the fountain of Futurna in the Roman Forum, where they were supposed to have arrived on the eve of the battle."3 commentsquadrans

1 Cruzado1986 CE

Obverse: State emblem (Star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars. Southern cross inside circle. Flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA FEDERATIVA DO BRASIL 15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889

Reverse: BRASIL - 1 - 1986 - CRUZADOPericles J2

1 Cruzeiro1961 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (a star with a circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars. southern cross inside a circle flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

Reverse: 1 CRUZEIRO 1961

Composition: AluminiumPericles J2

1.21 L. Scribonius LiboAR Republican Denarius
Rome, 62 BC

obv. LIB - BON-EVENT
Bonus Eventus (diademed), deity of good fortune and eventsEcgþeow

10 Cruzados1988 CE

Obverse: State emblem (Star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars. Southern cross inside circle. Flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA FEDERATIVA DO BRASIL 15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889

Reverse: BRASIL - 10 - 1988 - CRUZADOSPericles J2

100 RéisBrazil Republic

1889 AD

Obverse: REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRAZIL

Reverse: ORDEM E PROGRESSO 15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889Pericles J2

100 réisMCMI (1901)

Obverse: The National Arms on coffee branches and below 100, inscription “REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL”. Under weapons, the year in Roman numerals MCMI, and at the bottom, pearl necklace.

Reverse: Female figure representing the Republic and freedom, with a tiara inscribed and visible part of “LIBERTAS”, surrounded by a ring with 21 stars and, closer to the edge, a pearl necklace.Pericles J2

100 Réis1931 CE

Obverse: REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL 100 RÉIS * 1931 *

Reverse: Bust of Liberty right.Pericles J2

100 Réis1889 CE

Obverse: Stars of Southern Cross constellation at centre surrounded by circle of stars, date below.
REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRAZIL
1889

Reverse: Outer rim shows the national motto of the First Republic of Brazil, "Ordem e Progresso" (order and progress) and the date of the coup d'état, which took place on November 15th, 1889.
ORDEM E PROGRESSO
100 RÉIS
15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889

Engraver: Francisco José Pinto Carneiro Pericles J2

1000 Réis - Independence Centennial1922 CE

Obverse: Dom Pedro and President Pessoa left.
ACCLAM. DA INDEPENDENCIA X. PRESID. DA REPUBLICA
D.PEDRO I. EPITACIO PESSOA
BRASIL

Engraver: Augusto Giorgio Girardet

Reverse: Torch with two branches, value and the dates 1822 and 1922.
7 DE SETEMBRO
1000 RÉIS
1822 1922
1° CENTENARIO DA INDEPENDENCIA Pericles J2

109 AD: Improvement of the water supply of Rome under TrajanOricalchum sestertius (24.4g, 33mm, 6h) Rome mint. Struck AD 110.
IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC PM TR P COS V P P laureate head of Trajan right
AQVA / TRAIANA [in ex.] SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI [around edge] S C [left and right in ex.] River god reclining l. in arched grotto supported by two columns; left arm resting on urn; reed in right hand.
RIC 463 [S]; Cohen 20; Foss (Roman Historical Coins) 103:53

This type celebrates the construction of the Aqua Traiana which was dedicated on 20 June 109 constructed to improve the water supply of Rome. A branch of the Anio Novus was carried over the valley between the Caelian and the Aventine.
A lofty arcade was built upon the 'agger' of Servilius Tullius and passing over the Via Appia and the Porta Capena to the Piscina Publica. Terra-cotta water pipes with the name of Trajan and a leaden pipe inscribed AQVA TRAIANA have been found in excavations.Charles S

120 Maximianus Herculeus (285-286 Caesar, 286-305, 307-308 & 310 A.D. Augustus), Siscia, RIC V-II Not in, AE-Quinarius, -/-//--, IOVI CONSERVATORI, Jupiter standing left, Extremly Rare!120 Maximianus Herculeus (285-286 Caesar, 286-305, 307-308 & 310 A.D. Augustus), Siscia, RIC V-II Not in, AE-Quinarius, -/-//--, IOVI CONSERVATORI, Jupiter standing left, Extremly Rare!
avers:- IMP MAXIMIANVS P AVG, Laureate, cuirassed bust right.
revers:- IOVI CONS ERVATORI, Jupiter standing left, holding thunderbolt and scepter.
exerg: -/-//--, diameter: 16mm, weight: 1,42g, axes: 6h,
mint: Siscia , date: 285-286 A.D., ref: RIC-V-II-Not in, C-Not in,
Q-001

"The quinar of maximianus you last showed is also of Siscia mint.
Your coin is the 2nd known.
Paris has another coin in outstanding condition with the same set of dies.
Companions coins for Diocletian also exist. One of them is published and illustrated in Cathy King's publication on Roman Quinarii > Siscia 2 a ( Zagreb collection ) with the same reverse die as your coin !
All these quinarii from Siscia with larger busts ( in my opinion datation around 288-9 AD ) are very rare." by Helveticus, Thank you Helveticus
quadrans

12th Century Handwritten Vellum Leaf of the TalmudThis page of the Talmud predates publication of the first complete edition of the Talmud in 1540 by Daniel Bomberg. Bomberg employed rabbis, scholars, and apostates at his Venetian publishing house, and was responsible for the first Rabbinic Bible, as well as the first complete Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. It was once customary for Jews to use old manuscripts as binding material for their newly printed and bound books. This piece is an example of that practice

Ex Living Torah Museum collection
Quant.Geek

14 Hadrian RIC 290Hadrian 117-138 AD. AR Denarius. Rome Mint. 137 AD. (2.70g; 17.69mm) Obv: HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P, bare head right. Rev: VOTA PVBLICA, veiled emperor standing left, sacrificing out of patera over tripod.
RIC 290

Paddy

1409a, Julian II "the Philosopher," February 360 - 26 June 363 A.D.Julian II, A.D. 360-363; RIC 167; VF; 2.7g, 20mm; Constantinople mint; Obverse: DN FL CL IVLIANVS P F AVG, helmeted & cuirassed bust right, holding spear & shield; Reverse: VOT X MVLT XX in four lines within wreath; CONSPB in exergue; Attractive green patina. Ex Nemesis.

De Imperatoribus Romanis,
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

Julian the Apostate (360-363 A.D.)

Walter E. Roberts, Emory University
Michael DiMaio, Jr., Salve Regina University

Introduction

The emperor Flavius Claudius Julianus reigned from 360 to 26 June 363, when he was killed fighting against the Persians. Despite his short rule, his emperorship was pivotal in the development of the history of the later Roman empire. This essay is not meant to be a comprehensive look at the various issues central to the reign of Julian and the history of the later empire. Rather, this short work is meant to be a brief history and introduction for the general reader. Julian was the last direct descendent of the Constantinian line to ascend to the purple, and it is one of history's great ironies that he was the last non-Christian emperor. As such, he has been vilified by most Christian sources, beginning with John Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzus in the later fourth century. This tradition was picked up by the fifth century Eusebian continuators Sozomen, Socrates Scholasticus, and Theodoret and passed on to scholars down through the 20th century. Most contemporary sources, however, paint a much more balanced picture of Julian and his reign. The adoption of Christianity by emperors and society, while still a vital concern, was but one of several issues that concerned Julian.

It is fortunate that extensive writings from Julian himself exist, which help interpret his reign in the light of contemporary evidence. Still extant are some letters, several panegyrics, and a few satires. Other contemporary sources include the soldier Ammianus Marcellinus' history, correspondence between Julian and Libanius of Antioch, several panegyrics, laws from the Theodosian Code, inscriptions, and coinage. These sources show Julian's emphasis on restoration. He saw himself as the restorer of the traditional values of Roman society. Of course much of this was rhetoric, meant to defend Julian against charges that he was a usurper. At the same time this theme of restoration was central to all emperors of the fourth century. Julian thought that he was the one emperor who could regain what was viewed as the lost glory of the Roman empire. To achieve this goal he courted select groups of social elites to get across his message of restoration. This was the way that emperors functioned in the fourth century. By choosing whom to include in the sharing of power, they sought to shape society.

Early Life

Julian was born at Constantinople in 331. His father was Julius Constantius, half-brother of the emperor Constantine through Constantius Chlorus, and his mother was Basilina, Julius' second wife. Julian had two half-brothers via Julius' first marriage. One of these was Gallus, who played a major role in Julian's life. Julian appeared destined for a bright future via his father's connection to the Constantinian house. After many years of tense relations with his three half-brothers, Constantine seemed to have welcomed them into the fold of the imperial family. From 333 to 335, Constantine conferred a series of honors upon his three half-siblings, including appointing Julius Constantius as one of the consuls for 335. Julian's mother was equally distinguished. Ammianus related that she was from a noble family. This is supported by Libanius, who claimed that she was the daughter of Julius Julianus, a Praetorian Prefect under Licinius, who was such a model of administrative virtue that he was pardoned and honored by Constantine.

Despite the fact that his mother died shortly after giving birth to him, Julian experienced an idyllic early childhood. This ended when Constantius II conducted a purge of many of his relatives shortly after Constantine's death in 337, particularly targeting the families of Constantine's half-brothers. ulian and Gallus were spared, probably due to their young age. Julian was put under the care of Mardonius, a Scythian eunuch who had tutored his mother, in 339, and was raised in the Greek philosophical tradition, and probably lived in Nicomedia. Ammianus also supplied the fact that while in Nicomedia, Julian was cared for by the local bishop Eusebius, of whom the future emperor was a distant relation. Julian was educated by some of the most famous names in grammar and rhetoric in the Greek world at that time, including Nicocles and Hecebolius. In 344 Constantius II sent Julian and Gallus to Macellum in Cappadocia, where they remained for six years. In 351, Gallus was made Caesar by Constantius II and Julian was allowed to return to Nicomedia, where he studied under Aedesius, Eusebius, and Chrysanthius, all famed philosophers, and was exposed to the Neo-Platonism that would become such a prominent part of his life. But Julian was most proud of the time he spent studying under Maximus of Ephesus, a noted Neo-Platonic philospher and theurgist. It was Maximus who completed Julian's full-scale conversion to Neo-Platonism. Later, when he was Caesar, Julian told of how he put letters from this philosopher under his pillows so that he would continue to absorb wisdom while he slept, and while campaigning on the Rhine, he sent his speeches to Maximus for approval before letting others hear them. When Gallus was executed in 354 for treason by Constantius II, Julian was summoned to Italy and essentially kept under house arrest at Comum, near Milan, for seven months before Constantius' wife Eusebia convinced the emperor that Julian posed no threat. This allowed Julian to return to Greece and continue his life as a scholar where he studied under the Neo-Platonist Priscus. Julian's life of scholarly pursuit, however, ended abruptly when he was summoned to the imperial court and made Caesar by Constantius II on 6 November 355.

Julian as Caesar

Constantius II realized an essential truth of the empire that had been evident since the time of the Tetrarchy--the empire was too big to be ruled effectively by one man. Julian was pressed into service as Caesar, or subordinate emperor, because an imperial presence was needed in the west, in particular in the Gallic provinces. Julian, due to the emperor's earlier purges, was the only viable candidate of the imperial family left who could act as Caesar. Constantius enjoined Julian with the task of restoring order along the Rhine frontier. A few days after he was made Caesar, Julian was married to Constantius' sister Helena in order to cement the alliance between the two men. On 1 December 355, Julian journeyed north, and in Augusta Taurinorum he learned that Alamannic raiders had destroyed Colonia Agrippina. He then proceeded to Vienne where he spent the winter. At Vienne, he learned that Augustudunum was also under siege, but was being held by a veteran garrison. He made this his first priority, and arrived there on 24 June 356. When he had assured himself that the city was in no immediate danger, he journeyed to Augusta Treverorum via Autessioduram, and from there to Durocortorum where he rendezvoused with his army. Julian had the army stage a series of punitive strikes around the Dieuse region, and then he moved them towards the Argentoratum/Mongontiacum region when word of barbarian incursions reached him.

From there, Julian moved on to Colonia Agrippina, and negotiated a peace with the local barbarian leaders who had assaulted the city. He then wintered at Senonae. He spent the early part of the campaigning season of 357 fighting off besiegers at Senonae, and then conducting operations around Lugdunum and Tres Tabernae. Later that summer, he encountered his watershed moment as a military general. Ammianus went into great detail about Julian's victory over seven rogue Alamannic chieftains near Argentoratum, and Julian himself bragged about it in his later writing. After this battle, the soldiers acclaimed Julian Augustus, but he rejected this title. After mounting a series of follow-up raids into Alamannic territory, he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia, and on the way defeated some Frankish raiders in the Mosa region. Julian considered this campaign one of the major events of his time as Caesar.

Julian began his 358 military campaigns early, hoping to catch the barbarians by surprise. His first target was the Franks in the northern Rhine region. He then proceeded to restore some forts in the Mosa region, but his soldiers threatened to mutiny because they were on short rations and had not been paid their donative since Julian had become Caesar. After he soothed his soldiers, Julian spent the rest of the summer negotiating a peace with various Alamannic leaders in the mid and lower Rhine areas, and retired to winter quarters at Lutetia. In 359, he prepared once again to carry out a series of punitive expeditions against the Alamanni in the Rhine region who were still hostile to the Roman presence. In preparation, the Caesar repopulated seven previously destroyed cities and set them up as supply bases and staging areas. This was done with the help of the people with whom Julian had negotiated a peace the year before. Julian then had a detachment of lightly armed soldiers cross the Rhine near Mogontiacum and conduct a guerilla strike against several chieftains. As a result of these campaigns, Julian was able to negotiate a peace with all but a handful of the Alamannic leaders, and he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia.

Of course, Julian did more than act as a general during his time as Caesar. According to Ammianus, Julian was an able administrator who took steps to correct the injustices of Constantius' appointees. Ammianus related the story of how Julian prevented Florentius, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, from raising taxes, and also how Julian actually took over as governor for the province of Belgica Secunda. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, supported Ammianus' basic assessment of Julian in this regard when he reported that Julian was an able representative of the emperor to the Gallic provincials. There is also epigraphic evidence to support Julian's popularity amongst the provincial elites. An inscription found near Beneventum in Apulia reads:
"To Flavius Claudius Julianus, most noble and sanctified Caesar, from the caring Tocius Maximus, vir clarissimus, for the care of the res publica from Beneventum".

Tocius Maximus, as a vir clarissimus, was at the highest point in the social spectrum and was a leader in his local community. This inscription shows that Julian was successful in establishing a positive image amongst provincial elites while he was Caesar.

Julian Augustus

In early 360, Constantius, driven by jealousy of Julian's success, stripped Julian of many troops and officers, ostensibly because the emperor needed them for his upcoming campaign against the Persians. One of the legions ordered east, the Petulantes, did not want to leave Gaul because the majority of the soldiers in the unit were from this region. As a result they mutinied and hailed Julian as Augustus at Lutetia. Julian refused this acclamation as he had done at Argentoratum earlier, but the soldiers would have none of his denial. They raised him on a shield and adorned him with a neck chain, which had formerly been the possession of the standard-bearer of the Petulantes and symbolized a royal diadem. Julian appeared reluctantly to acquiesce to their wishes, and promised a generous donative. The exact date of his acclamation is unknown, but most scholars put it in February or March. Julian himself supported Ammianus' picture of a jealous Constantius. In his Letter to the Athenians, a document constructed to answer charges that he was a usurper, Julian stated that from the start he, as Caesar, had been meant as a figurehead to the soldiers and provincials. The real power he claimed lay with the generals and officials already present in Gaul. In fact, according to Julian, the generals were charged with watching him as much as the enemy. His account of the actual acclamation closely followed what Ammianus told us, but he stressed even more his reluctance to take power. Julian claimed that he did so only after praying to Zeus for guidance.

Fearing the reaction of Constantius, Julian sent a letter to his fellow emperor justifying the events at Lutetia and trying to arrange a peaceful solution. This letter berated Constantius for forcing the troops in Gaul into an untenable situation. Ammianus stated that Julian's letter blamed Constantius' decision to transfer Gallic legions east as the reason for the soldiers' rebellion. Julian once again asserted that he was an unwilling participant who was only following the desire of the soldiers. In both of these basic accounts Ammianus and Julian are playing upon the theme of restoration. Implicit in their version of Julian's acclamation is the argument that Constantius was unfit to rule. The soldiers were the vehicle of the gods' will. The Letter to the Athenians is full of references to the fact that Julian was assuming the mantle of Augustus at the instigation of the gods. Ammianus summed up this position nicely when he related the story of how, when Julian was agonizing over whether to accept the soldiers' acclamation, he had a dream in which he was visited by the Genius (guardian spirit) of the Roman state. The Genius told Julian that it had often tried to bestow high honors upon Julian but had been rebuffed. Now, the Genius went on to say, was Julian's final chance to take the power that was rightfully his. If the Caesar refused this chance, the Genius would depart forever, and both Julian and the state would rue Julian's rejection. Julian himself wrote a letter to his friend Maximus of Ephesus in November of 361 detailing his thoughts on his proclamation. In this letter, Julian stated that the soldiers proclaimed him Augustus against his will. Julian, however, defended his accession, saying that the gods willed it and that he had treated his enemies with clemency and justice. He went on to say that he led the troops in propitiating the traditional deities, because the gods commanded him to return to the traditional rites, and would reward him if he fulfilled this duty.

During 360 an uneasy peace simmered between the two emperors. Julian spent the 360 campaigning season continuing his efforts to restore order along the Rhine, while Constantius continued operations against the Persians. Julian wintered in Vienne, and celebrated his Quinquennalia. It was at this time that his wife Helena died, and he sent her remains to Rome for a proper burial at his family villa on the Via Nomentana where the body of her sister was entombed. The uneasy peace held through the summer of 361, but Julian concentrated his military operations around harassing the Alamannic chieftain Vadomarius and his allies, who had concluded a peace treaty with Constantius some years earlier. By the end of the summer, Julian decided to put an end to the waiting and gathered his army to march east against Constantius. The empire teetered on the brink of another civil war. Constantius had spent the summer negotiating with the Persians and making preparations for possible military action against his cousin. When he was assured that the Persians would not attack, he summoned his army and sallied forth to meet Julian. As the armies drew inexorably closer to one another, the empire was saved from another bloody civil war when Constantius died unexpectedly of natural causes on 3 November near the town of Mopsucrenae in Cilicia, naming Julian -- the sources say-- as his legitimate successor.

Julian was in Dacia when he learned of his cousin's death. He made his way through Thrace and came to Constantinople on 11 December 361 where Julian honored the emperor with the funeral rites appropriate for a man of his station. Julian immediately set about putting his supporters in positions of power and trimming the imperial bureaucracy, which had become extremely overstaffed during Constantius' reign. Cooks and barbers had increased during the late emperor's reign and Julian expelled them from his court. Ammianus gave a mixed assessment of how the new emperor handled the followers of Constantius. Traditionally, emperors were supposed to show clemency to the supporters of a defeated enemy. Julian, however, gave some men over to death to appease the army. Ammianus used the case of Ursulus, Constantius' comes sacrum largitionum, to illustrate his point. Ursulus had actually tried to acquire money for the Gallic troops when Julian had first been appointed Caesar, but he had also made a disparaging remark about the ineffectiveness of the army after the battle of Amida. The soldiers remembered this, and when Julian became sole Augustus, they demanded Ursulus' head. Julian obliged, much to the disapproval of Ammianus. This seems to be a case of Julian courting the favor of the military leadership, and is indicative of a pattern in which Julian courted the goodwill of various societal elites to legitimize his position as emperor.

Another case in point is the officials who made up the imperial bureaucracy. Many of them were subjected to trial and punishment. To achieve this goal, during the last weeks of December 361 Julian assembled a military tribunal at Chalcedon, empanelling six judges to try the cases. The president of the tribunal was Salutius, just promoted to the rank of Praetorian Prefect; the five other members were Mamertinus, the orator, and four general officers: Jovinus, Agilo, Nevitta, and Arbetio. Relative to the proceedings of the tribunal, Ammianus noted that the judges, " . . . oversaw the cases more vehemently than was right or fair, with the exception of a few . . .." Ammianus' account of Julian's attempt at reform of the imperial bureaucracy is supported by legal evidence from the Theodosian Code. A series of laws sent to Mamertinus, Julian's appointee as Praetorian Prefect in Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, illustrate this point nicely. On 6 June 362, Mamertinus received a law that prohibited provincial governors from bypassing the Vicars when giving their reports to the Prefect. Traditionally, Vicars were given civil authority over a group of provinces, and were in theory meant to serve as a middle step between governors and Prefects. This law suggests that the Vicars were being left out, at least in Illyricum. Julian issued another edict to Mamertinus on 22 February 362 to stop abuse of the public post by governors. According to this law, only Mamertinus could issue post warrants, but the Vicars were given twelve blank warrants to be used as they saw fit, and each governor was given two. Continuing the trend of bureaucratic reform, Julian also imposed penalties on governors who purposefully delayed appeals in court cases they had heard. The emperor also established a new official to weigh solidi used in official government transactions to combat coin clipping.

For Julian, reigning in the abuses of imperial bureaucrats was one step in restoring the prestige of the office of emperor. Because he could not affect all elements of society personally, Julian, like other Neo-Flavian emperors, decided to concentrate on select groups of societal elites as intercessors between himself and the general populace. One of these groups was the imperial bureaucracy. Julian made it very clear that imperial officials were intercessors in a very real sense in a letter to Alypius, Vicar of Britain. In this letter, sent from Gaul sometime before 361, the emperor praises Alypius for his use of "mildness and moderation with courage and force" in his rule of the provincials. Such virtues were characteristic of the emperors, and it was good that Alypius is representing Julian in this way. Julian courted the army because it put him in power. Another group he sought to include in his rule was the traditional Senatorial aristocracy. One of his first appointments as consul was Claudius Mamertinus, a Gallic Senator and rhetorician. Mamertinus' speech in praise of Julian delivered at Constantinople in January of 362 is preserved. In this speech, Claudius presented his consular selection as inaugurating a new golden age and Julian as the restorer of the empire founded by Augustus. The image Mamertinus gave of his own consulate inaugurating a new golden age is not merely formulaic. The comparison of Julian to Augustus has very real, if implicit, relevance to Claudius' situation. Claudius emphasized the imperial period as the true age of renewal. Augustus ushered in a new era with his formation of a partnership between the emperor and the Senate based upon a series of honors and offices bestowed upon the Senate in return for their role as intercessor between emperor and populace. It was this system that Julian was restoring, and the consulate was one concrete example of this bond. To be chosen as a consul by the emperor, who himself had been divinely mandated, was a divine honor. In addition to being named consul, Mamertinus went on to hold several offices under Julian, including the Prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Similarly, inscriptional evidence illustrates a link between municipal elites and Julian during his time as Caesar, something which continued after he became emperor. One concrete example comes from the municipal senate of Aceruntia in Apulia, which established a monument on which Julian is styled as "Repairer of the World."

Julian seems to have given up actual Christian belief before his acclamation as emperor and was a practitioner of more traditional Greco-Roman religious beliefs, in particular, a follower of certain late antique Platonist philosophers who were especially adept at theurgy as was noted earlier. In fact Julian himself spoke of his conversion to Neo-Platonism in a letter to the Alexandrians written in 363. He stated that he had abandoned Christianity when he was twenty years old and been an adherent of the traditional Greco-Roman deities for the twelve years prior to writing this letter.

(For the complete text of this article see: http://www.roman-emperors.org/julian.htm)

Julian’s Persian Campaign

The exact goals Julian had for his ill-fated Persian campaign were never clear. The Sassanid Persians, and before them the Parthians, had been a traditional enemy from the time of the Late Republic, and indeed Constantius had been conducting a war against them before Julian's accession forced the former to forge an uneasy peace. Julian, however, had no concrete reason to reopen hostilities in the east. Socrates Scholasticus attributed Julian's motives to imitation of Alexander the Great, but perhaps the real reason lay in his need to gather the support of the army. Despite his acclamation by the Gallic legions, relations between Julian and the top military officers was uneasy at best. A war against the Persians would have brought prestige and power both to Julian and the army.

Julian set out on his fateful campaign on 5 March 363. Using his trademark strategy of striking quickly and where least expected, he moved his army through Heirapolis and from there speedily across the Euphrates and into the province of Mesopotamia, where he stopped at the town of Batnae. His plan was to eventually return through Armenia and winter in Tarsus. Once in Mesopotamia, Julian was faced with the decision of whether to travel south through the province of Babylonia or cross the Tigris into Assyria, and he eventually decided to move south through Babylonia and turn west into Assyria at a later date. By 27 March, he had the bulk of his army across the Euphrates, and had also arranged a flotilla to guard his supply line along the mighty river. He then left his generals Procopius and Sebastianus to help Arsacius, the king of Armenia and a Roman client, to guard the northern Tigris line. It was also during this time that he received the surrender of many prominent local leaders who had nominally supported the Persians. These men supplied Julian with money and troops for further military action against their former masters. Julian decided to turn south into Babylonia and proceeded along the Euphrates, coming to the fortress of Cercusium at the junction of the Abora and Euphrates Rivers around the first of April, and from there he took his army west to a region called Zaitha near the abandoned town of Dura where they visited the tomb of the emperor Gordian which was in the area. On April 7 he set out from there into the heart of Babylonia and towards Assyria.

Ammianus then stated that Julian and his army crossed into Assyria, which on the face of things appears very confusing. Julian still seems to be operating within the province of Babylonia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The confusion is alleviated when one realizes that,for Ammianus, the region of Assyria encompassed the provinces of Babylonia and Assyria. On their march, Julian's forces took the fortress of Anatha, received the surrender and support of several more local princes, and ravaged the countryside of Assyria between the rivers. As the army continued south, they came across the fortresses Thilutha and Achaiachala, but these places were too well defended and Julian decided to leave them alone. Further south were the cities Diacira and Ozogardana, which the Roman forces sacked and burned. Soon, Julian came to Pirisabora and a brief siege ensued, but the city fell and was also looted and destroyed. It was also at this time that the Roman army met its first systematic resistance from the Persians. As the Romans penetrated further south and west, the local inhabitants began to flood their route. Nevertheless, the Roman forces pressed on and came to Maiozamalcha, a sizable city not far from Ctesiphon. After a short siege, this city too fell to Julian. Inexorably, Julian's forces zeroed in on Ctesiphon, but as they drew closer, the Persian resistance grew fiercer, with guerilla raids whittling at Julian's men and supplies. A sizable force of the army was lost and the emperor himself was almost killed taking a fort a few miles from the target city.
Finally, the army approached Ctesiphon following a canal that linked the Tigris and Euphrates. It soon became apparent after a few preliminary skirmishes that a protracted siege would be necessary to take this important city. Many of his generals, however, thought that pursuing this course of action would be foolish. Julian reluctantly agreed, but became enraged by this failure and ordered his fleet to be burned as he decided to march through the province of Assyria. Julian had planned for his army to live off the land, but the Persians employed a scorched-earth policy. When it became apparent that his army would perish (because his supplies were beginning to dwindle) from starvation and the heat if he continued his campaign, and also in the face of superior numbers of the enemy, Julian ordered a retreat on 16 June. As the Roman army retreated, they were constantly harassed by guerilla strikes. It was during one of these raids that Julian got caught up in the fighting and took a spear to his abdomen. Mortally wounded he was carried to his tent, where, after conferring with some of his officers, he died. The date was 26 June 363.

Conclusion

Thus an ignominious end for a man came about who had hoped to restore the glory of the Roman empire during his reign as emperor. Due to his intense hatred of Christianity, the opinion of posterity has not been kind to Julian. The contemporary opinion, however, was overall positive. The evidence shows that Julian was a complex ruler with a definite agenda to use traditional social institutions in order to revive what he saw as a collapsing empire. In the final assessment, he was not so different from any of the other emperors of the fourth century. He was a man grasping desperately to hang on to a Greco-Roman conception of leadership that was undergoing a subtle yet profound change.
Copyright (C) 2002, Walter E. Roberts and Michael DiMaio, Jr. Used by permission.

In reality, Julian worked to promote culture and philosophy in any manifestation. He tried to reduce taxes and the public debts of municipalities; he augmented administrative decentralisation; he promoted a campaign of austerity to reduce public expenditure (setting himself as the example). He reformed the postal service and eliminated the powerful secret police.
by Federico Morando; JULIAN II, The Apostate, See the Julian II Page on NumisWiki

Flavius Claudius Iulianus was born in 331 or maybe 332 A.D. in Constantinople. He ruled the Western Empire as Caesar from 355 to 360 and was hailed Augustus by his legions in Lutetia (Paris) in 360. Julian was a gifted administrator and military strategist. Famed as the last pagan emperor, his reinstatement of the pagan religion earned him the moniker "the Apostate." As evidenced by his brilliant writing, some of which has survived to the present day, the title "the Philosopher" may have been more appropriate. He died from wounds suffered during the Persian campaign of 363 A.D. Joseph Sermarini, FORVM.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

2 commentsCleisthenes

14th Century Handwritten Vellum Leaf of the Torah This page of the Talmud predates publication of the first complete edition of the Talmud in 1540 by Daniel Bomberg. Bomberg employed rabbis, scholars, and apostates at his Venetian publishing house, and was responsible for the first Rabbinic Bible, as well as the first complete Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. It was once customary for Jews to use old manuscripts as binding material for their newly printed and bound books. This piece is an example of that practice.

Ex Living Torah Museum collection
Quant.Geek

1754 - États de RennesLouis XV
6,47g
28 mm
argent
LUD. XV. REDIVIVO ET TRIUMPHANTI.
"Louis XV ressuscité et triomphant"
Statue du roi sur un piédestal, vêtu à l’antique, derrière, des drapeaux ; à droite la Bretagne assise, devant, les armes de la province, derrière, une ancre sortant de la mer ; à gauche Hygie et un autel allumé .
Sur le piédestal on peut lire l'inscription :
LUDOVICO XV
REGI CHRISTIANISSIMO
REDIVIVO ET TRIUMPHANTI.
HOC AMORIS PIGNUS
ET SALUTATIS PUBLICAE MOMUMENTUM
COMITIA ARMORICA POSUERE
ANNO M DCC LIV
au revers :
JETON DES ESTATS DE BRETAGNE 1754.
Écu couronné écartelé aux 1 et 4 de France, aux 2 et 3 de Bretagne, sur un manteau semé de fleurs de lis et d’hermines
Daniel 102PYL

1754 - États de RennesLouis XV
6,55g
28 mm
argent
LUD. XV. REDIVIVO ET TRIUMPHANTI.
"Louis XV ressuscité et triomphant"
Statue du roi sur un piédestal,
vêtu à l’antique, derrière, des drapeaux;
à droite la Bretagne assise,
devant les armes de la province,
derrière une ancre sortant de la mer;
à gauche Hygie et un autel allumé .
Sur le piédestal on peut lire l'inscription :
LUDOVICO XV
REGI CHRISTIANISSIMO
REDIVIVO ET TRIUMPHANTI.
HOC AMORIS PIGNUS
ET SALUTATIS PUBLICAE MOMUMENTUM
COMITIA ARMORICA POSUERE
ANNO M DCC LIV
au revers :
JETON DES ESTATS DE BRETAGNE 1754.
Écu couronné écartelé aux 1 et 4 de France,
aux 2 et 3 de Bretagne,
sur un manteau semé de fleurs de lis et d’hermines
Daniel 102 PYL

1874. Edward VII, as Prince of Wales. Royal Horticultural Buildings. Taylor 180bObv. Head of Edward left ALBERT EDWARD PRINCE OF WALES PRESIDENT, G MORGAN SC, on truncation BOEHM
Rev. The Royal Horticultural Buildings LONDON ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF ALL FINE ARTS INDUSTRIES AND INVENTIONS on scroll below central medallion MDCCCLXXIV

AE51. Taylor 180b.

This medal is arguably the most complex architectural medal ever undertaken, and in my opinion the most accomplished. The depth of view is truly astounding, though this does not come accross to well in the picture. The depiction of the buildings is used as the cover art of Taylor's "The Architectural Medal: England in the Nineteenth Century", British Museum Publication, 1978.

LordBest

1882-Zs JS Mexican Silver 8 RealesMexico, Second Republic (1867-1905), Silver 8 Reales, 1882-Zs JS, SCWC KM 377.13, DP-Zs67, Cap & Rays type, 1845-82 die style, full J variety, EF-gEF, minor marks, with some brilliance, herringbone edge, weight 27.07g (ASW 0.7859oz), composition 0.903 Ag, 0.097 Cu, diameter 38.9mm, thickness 2.7mm, die axis 180°, Zacatecas mint, 1882; obverse REPUBLICA MEXICANA (Mexican Republic) arcing above, golden eagle perched left, head right, wings spread, atop prickly pear nopal cactus on rock in middle of lake, rattlesnake in beak and right talon, within half-circle oak and olive wreath tied with ribbon below, toothed border surrounding; reverse Phrygian cap inscribed LIBERTAD (Liberty) with glory of rays behind, ★ 8R. Zˢ. 1882. J.S. 10 Dˢ. 20 Gˢ. arcing below, toothed border surrounding; from the Roger Belmar Collection; ex Saltford Coins (1 Apr 2024); £165.00.Serendipity

1887-Do MC Mexican Silver 8 RealesMexico, Second Republic (1867-1905), Silver 8 Reales, 1887-Do MC, SCWC KM 337.4, DP-Do76, Cap & Rays type, aUNC, minor marks, bright crisp lustre, herringbone edge, weight 27.07g (ASW 0.7859oz), composition 0.903 Ag, 0.097 Cu, diameter 38.9mm, thickness 2.7mm, die axis 180°, Durango mint, 1887; obverse REPUBLICA MEXICANA (Mexican Republic) arcing above, golden eagle perched left, head right, wings spread, atop prickly pear nopal cactus on rock in middle of lake, rattlesnake in beak and right talon, within half-circle oak and olive wreath tied with ribbon below, toothed border surrounding; reverse Phrygian cap inscribed LIBERTAD (Liberty) with glory of rays behind, ★ 8R. D°. 1887. M.C. 10 Dˢ. 20 Gˢ. arcing below, toothed border surrounding; from the Roger Belmar Collection; ex Saltford Coins (21 Mar 2024); £175.00.Serendipity

1893 Columbian Exposition Republican Presidential Nominees MedalObv: View of the north elevation of the White House, above are portraits of Benjamin Harrison and Levi Morton within ovals, FOR PRESIDENT and VICE PRESIDENT below them. REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTIAL NOMINEES / 1892 above.

Rev: A depiction of Christopher Columbus setting foot in the new world within a map of the western hemisphere; LANDING OF COLUMBUS IN AMERICA / OCTOBER 12TH, 1492 below. PAT'D DEC. 1, 1891 in bottom of outer border.Matt Inglima

1954 Official Republican Centennial MedalObv: REPUBLICAN CENTENNIAL 1854 - 1954, Conjoined busts of Abraham Lincoln and Dwight Eisenhower facing left.

Rev: Two lighted torches, quotes between: "WITH MALICE TOWARD NONE, WITH CHARITY FOR ALL, WITH FIRMNESS IN THE RIGHT, AS GOD GIVES US TO SEE THE RIGHT, LET US STRIVE ON TO FINISH THE WORK WE ARE IN" -Abraham Lincoln. "IN ALL THOSE THINGS WHICH DEAL WITH PEOPLE, BE LIBERAL, BE HUMAN. IN ALL THOSE THINGS WHICH DEAL WITH THE PEOPLE'S MONEY OR THEIR ECONOMY, OR THEIR FORM OF GOVERNMENT, BE CONSERVATIVE." Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Engraver: Gilroy Roberts

Mint: Medallic Art Company, Date: 1954, Bronze, Diameter: 63.6 mm

Note: Gilroy Roberts was already the chief engraver of the United States Mint when he designed this medal. He would go on to design the portrait on the John F. Kennedy half dollar.Matt Inglima

196/1 AE AsAnonymous [Star]. Æ As. Rome Mint. c 169-158 BC. (32 mm, 17.95 g, 4 h) Rev: Laureate head of Janus; above, I. Obv: Prow of galley right; above, star; before, I; below, ROMA.
BMCRR 461; Syd 264; Crawford 196/1

Reddish-brown patina with some black spots. Nearly very fine.
A duplicate from the RBW Collection of Roman Republican Coins. Purchased privately from Frank Kovacs in 1988

Ex: Triskles Paddy

1dt Maximianus286-305, 306-308, 310

Quarter Follis

Laureate head, right, IMP C M A MAXIMIANVS P F AVG
Genius standing left, with modius on head, cornucopia & patera, GENIO POPVLI ROMANI, SIS in exergue

RIC 146

Eutropius records: [Diocletian] thus became master of the Roman empire; and when the peasants in Gaul made an insurrection, giving their faction the name of Bagaudae, and having for leaders Amandus and Aelianus, he despatched Maximian Herculius, with the authority of Caesar, to suppress them. Maximian, in a few battles of little importance, subdued the rustic multitude, and restored peace to Gaul. . . . While disorder thus prevailed throughout the world, while Carausius was taking arms in Britain and Achilleus in Egypt, while the Quinquegentiani were harassing Africa, and Narseus was making war upon the east, Diocletian promoted MAXIMIAN HERCULIUS from the dignity of Caesar to that "of emperor, and created Constantius and Maximian Galerius Caesars. . . .

Maximian the emperor, brought the war to an end in Africa, by subduing the Quinquegentiani, and compelling them to make peace. . . .

Herculius was undisguisedly cruel, and of a violent temper, and showed his severity of disposition in the sternness of his looks. Gratifying his own inclination, he joined with Diocletian in even the most cruel of his proceedings. But when Diocletian, as age bore heavily upon him, felt himself unable to sustain the government of the empire, he suggested to Herculius that they should both retire into private life, and commit the duty of upholding the state to more vigorous and youthful hands. With this suggestion his colleague reluctantly complied. Both of them, in the same day, exchanged the robe of empire for an ordinary dress, Diocletian at Nicomedia, Herculius at Milan, soon after a magnificent triumph which they celebrated at Rome over several nations, with a noble succession of pictures, and in which the wives, sisters, and children of Narseus were led before their chariots. The one then retired to Salonae, and the other into Lucania.

But after the death of Constantius, CONSTANTINE, his son by a wife of obscure birth, was made emperor in Britain, and succeeded his father as a most desirable ruler. In the meantime the praetorian guards at Rome, having risen in insurrection, declared MAXENTIUS, the son of Maximian Herculius, who lived in the Villa Publica not far from the city, emperor. At the news of this proceeding, Maximian, filled with hopes of regaining the imperial dignity, which he had not willingly resigned, hurried to Rome from Lucania. . . , and stimulated Diocletian by letters to resume the authority that he had laid down, letters which Diocletian utterly disregarded. Severus Caesar, being despatched to Rome by Galerius to suppress the rising of the guards and Maxentius, arrived there with his army, but, as he was laying siege to the city, was deserted through the treachery of his soldiers.

The power of Maxentius was thus increased, and his government established. Severus, taking to flight, was killed at Ravenna. Maximian Herculius, attempting afterwards, in an assembly of the army, to divest his son Maxentius of his power, met with nothing but mutiny and reproaches from the soldiery. He then set out for Gaul, on a planned stratagem, as if he had been driven away by his son, that he might join his son-in-law Constantine, designing, however, if he could find an opportunity, to cut off Constantine, who was ruling in Gaul with great approbation both of the soldiers and the people of the province, having overthrown the Franks and Alemanni with great slaughter, and captured their kings, whom, on exhibiting a magnificent show of games, he exposed to wild beasts. But the plot being made known by Maximian's daughter Fausta, who communicated the design to her husband, Maximian was cut off at Marseilles, whence he was preparing to sail to join his son, and died a well-deserved death. . . .Blindado

1dx Severus II306-307

Quarter Follis

Laureate head, right, FL VAL SEVERVS NOB C
Genius standing left, modius on head, naked except for chlamys over left shoulder, holding patera and cornucopiae. Mintmark SIS, GENIO POPVLI ROMANI.

RIC 170a

According to Eutropius: Galerius, a man of excellent moral character, and skilful in military affairs, finding that Italy, by Constantius's permission, was put under his government, created two Caesars, MAXIMIN, whom he appointed over the east, and SEVERUS, to whom he committed Italy. He himself resided in Illyricum. But after the death of Constantius, CONSTANTINE, his son by a wife of obscure birth, was made emperor in Britain, and succeeded his father as a most desirable ruler. In the meantime the praetorian guards at Rome, having risen in insurrection, declared MAXENTIUS, the son of Maximian Herculius, who lived in the Villa Publica not far from the city, emperor. . . . Severus Caesar, being despatched to Rome by Galerius to suppress the rising of the guards and Maxentius, arrived there with his army, but, as he was laying siege to the city, was deserted through the treachery of his soldiers. . . .
The power of Maxentius was thus increased, and his government established. Severus, taking to flight, was killed at Ravenna. Blindado

1dz Maxentius306-312

Follis

Laureate head, right, MAXENTIVS P F AVG
Roma in temple, CONSERVATORES VRB SVAE

RIC 194a

Eutropius reports: But after the death of Constantius, CONSTANTINE, his son by a wife of obscure birth, was made emperor in Britain, and succeeded his father as a most desirable ruler. In the meantime the praetorian guards at Rome, having risen in insurrection, declared MAXENTIUS, the son of Maximian Herculius, who lived in the Villa Publica not far from the city, emperor. At the news of this proceeding, Maximian, filled with hopes of regaining the imperial dignity, which he had not willingly resigned, hurried to Rome from Lucania. . . , and stimulated Diocletian by letters to resume the authority that he had laid down, letters which Diocletian utterly disregarded. Severus Caesar, being despatched to Rome by Galerius to suppress the rising of the guards and Maxentius, arrived there with his army, but, as he was laying siege to the city, was deserted through the treachery of his soldiers.

The power of Maxentius was thus increased, and his government established. Severus, taking to flight, was killed at Ravenna. Maximian Herculius, attempting afterwards, in an assembly of the army, to divest his son Maxentius of his power, met with nothing but mutiny and reproaches from the soldiery. . . .

At this time LICINIUS, a native of Dacia, was made emperor by Galerius, to whom he was known by old companionship, and recommended by his vigorous efforts and services in the war which he had conducted against Narseus. The death of Galerius followed immediately afterwards. The empire was then held by the four new emperors, Constantine and Maxentius, sons of emperors, Licinius and Maximian, sons of undistinguished men. Constantine, however, in the fifth year of his reign, commenced a civil war with Maxentius, routed his forces in several battles, and at last overthrew Maxentius himself (when he was spreading death among the nobility by every possible kind of cruelty,) at the Milvian bridge, and made himself master of Italy. Blindado

1ec_2 Constantine the Great307-337

Follis

Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust right, IMP CONSTANTINVS PF AVG
Sol standing left, chlamys across left shoulder, raising right hand and holding globe in left hand, captive to left. Mintmark RQ.

RIC VII 52

According to Zonaras: Constans, in the eleventh year of his reign since he had been proclaimed Caesar, having ruled gently and mildly, came to the end of his life while residing in Britain, having, because of his goodness, bequeathed grief for himself among those he ruled, first having appointed successor the elder of his own sons, namely Constantine the Great, whom he begat by his first wife. He also had by his second wife, Herculius’ daughter Theodora, other sons, Constantinus, Hannibalianus, and Constantius. Constantine the Great was preferred over them, since they were judged by their father to be unsuited for sovereignty. . . . Constantine, when he was still a lad, was actually given by his father as a hostage to Gallerius, in order that, serving as a hostage, at the same time he be trained in the exercise of the soldierly art.

Eutropius summarizes: CONSTANTINE, being a man of great energy, bent upon effecting whatever he had settled in his mind, and aspiring to the sovereignty of the whole world, proceeded to make war on Licinius, although he had formed a connexion with him by marriage,5 for his sister Constantia was married to Licinius. And first of all be overthrew him, by a sudden attack, at Cibalae in Pannonia, where he was making vast preparations for war; and after becoming master of Dardania, Maesia, and Macedonia, took possession also of several other provinces.

There were then various contests between them, and peace made and broken. At last Licinius, defeated in a battle at Nicomedia by sea and land, surrendered himself, and, in violation of an oath taken by Constantine, was put to death, after being divested of the purple, at Thessalonica.

At this time the Roman empire fell under the sway of one emperor and three Caesars, a state of things which had never existed before; the sons of Constantine ruling over Gaul, the east, and Italy. But the pride of prosperity caused Constantine greatly to depart from his former agreeable mildness of temper. Falling first upon his own relatives, he put to death his son, an excellent man; his sister's son, a youth of amiable disposition; soon afterwards his wife, and subsequently many of his friends.

He was a man, who, in the beginning of his reign, might have been compared to the best princes; in the latter part of it, only to those of a middling character. Innumerable good qualities of mind and body were apparent in him; he was exceedingly ambitious of military glory, and had great success in his wars; a success, however, not more than proportioned to his exertions. After he had terminated the Civil war, he also overthrew the Goths on various occasions, granting them at last peace, and leaving on the minds of the barbarians a strong remembrance of his kindness. He was attached to the arts of peace and to liberal studies, and was ambitious of honourable popularity, which he, indeed, sought by every kind of liberality and obligingness. Though he was slow, from suspicion, to serve some of his friends,6 yet he was exceedingly generous towards others, neglecting no opportunity to add to their riches and honours.

He enacted many laws, some good and equitable, but most of them superfluous, and some severe. He was the first that endeavoured to raise the city named after him to such a height as to make it a rival to Rome. As he was preparing for war against the Parthians, who were then disturbing Mesopotamia, he died in the Villa Publica, at Nicomedia, in the thirty-first year of his reign, and the sixty-sixth of his age.

Zosimus described Constantine's conversion to Christianity: For he put to death his son Crispus, stiled (as I mentioned) Caesar, on suspicion of debauching his mother-in-law Fausta, without any regard to the ties of nature. And when his own mother Helena expressed much sorrow for this atrocity, lamenting the young man's death with great bitterness, Constantine under pretence of comforting her, applied a remedy worse than the disease. For causing a bath to be heated to an extraordinary degree, he shut up Fausta in it, and a short time after took her out dead. Of which his conscience accusing him, as also of violating his oath, he went to the priests to be purified from his crimes. But they told him, that there was no kind of lustration that was sufficient to clear him of such enormities. A Spaniard, named Aegyptius, very familiar with the court-ladies, being at Rome, happened to fall into converse with Constantine, and assured him, that the Christian doctrine would teach him how to cleanse himself from all his offences, and that they who received it were immediately absolved from all their sins. Constantine had no sooner heard this than he easily believed what was told him, and forsaking the rites of his country, received those which Aegyptius offered him ; and for the first instance of his impiety, suspected the truth of divination.Blindado

1eq Valens364-378

AE 3, Siscia

Pearl diademed, draped, cuirassed bust right, D N VALENS P F AVG
Victory advancing left, holding wreath and palm, SECVRITAS REIPUBLICAE. Mintmark dot ASISC.

RIC 7b

Zosimus recorded: [Valentinian was an experienced military man, but] Valens was surrounded with disquietude on every side, having always lived inactively, and having been raised to the empire suddenly. He could not indeed sustain the weight of business. He was disturbed, not by the Persians only, who were elated with their prosperity, which had increased since their truce with Jovian. They made incursions on the provinces without controul, since Nisibis was in their possession, and by distressing the eastern towns, constrained the emperor to march against them. On his departure from Constantinople, the rebellion of Procopius commenced. . . .

{With Valentiniand dead,] Valens was inundated with wars on every side. . . . [Valens' advisers] persuaded him to |107 march forward with his whole army; that the Barbarians were almost destroyed, and the emperor might gain a victory without trouble. Their counsel, though the least prudent, so far prevailed, that the emperor led forth his whole army without order. The Barbarians resolutely opposed them, and gained so signal a victory, that they slew all, except a few with whom the emperor fled into an unfortified village. The Barbarians, therefore, surrounded the place with a quantity of wood, which they set on fire. All who had fled thither, together with the inhabitants, were consumed in the tlames, and in such a manner, that the body of the emperor could never be found.Blindado

2 Cruzeiros1959 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars, the southern cross inside circle flanked by tobacco and coffee plant)

REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL
15 de Novembro de 1889

Reverse: 2 CRUZEIROS 1959Pericles J2

20 Centavos1956 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (a star with a circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars; southern cross inside the circle; flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

Reverse: 20 CENTAVOS 1956
Pericles J2

20 Francs From France, NAPOLEONAU, 21mm. , Paris, France, 1803/1804
Obv:BONAPARTE PREMIER CONSUL
REV: REPUBLIQUE FRANCAISE, 20 Francs, AN 12
AN 12 means the 12th year from republican calendar= from september 24th 1803 to september 22 nd 1804Jean Paul D

20 Réis1919 CE

Obverse: Bust of Liberty right within 3/4 circle of stars.

Reverse: 20 RÉIS at center. 1919 below.

REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL
20
RÉIS
1919Pericles J2

200 RéisMCMI (1901)

Obverse: The National Arms on coffee branches and below 200, inscription “REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL”. Under weapons, the year in Roman numerals MCMI, and at the bottom, pearl necklace.

Reverse: Female figure representing the Republic and freedom, with a tiara inscribed and visible part of “LIBERTAS”, surrounded by a ring with 21 stars and, closer to the edge, a pearl necklace.

Pericles J2

200 Réis1927 CE

Obverse: REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL 200 RÉIS 1927

Reverse: Head of "Liberty" facing right with stars around the rim.Pericles J2

200 Réis1929 CE

Obverse: REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL 200 RÉIS *1929*

Reverse: Head of "Liberty" facing right with stars around the rim.Pericles J2

200 Réis1889 CE

Obverse: Stars in the center surrounded by a circle of stars, date below.
REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRAZIL
*1889*

Reverse: Denomination within circle.
ORDEM E PROGRESSO
200
RÉIS
*15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889* Pericles J2

201a. Julia DomnaVesta

Vesta was introduced in Rome by King Numa Pompilius. She was a native Roman deity (some authors suggest received from the Sabine cults), sister of Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Hera and Demeter, and presumably the daughter of Saturn and Ops (or Rea). However, the similarity with the cult of Greek Hestia is notable. Vesta too protected familial harmony and the res publica. Apollo and Neptune had asked for her in marriage, but she refused both, preferring to preserve her virginity, whose symbol was the perpetually lit fire in her circular fane next to the Forum which the Romans always distinguished from a temple by calling it her "house".

As Goddess of the Hearth she was the symbol of the home, around which a newborn child must be carried before it could be received into the family. Every meal began and ended with an offering to her:

Vesta, in all dwellings of men and immortals
Yours is the highest honor, the sweet wine offered
First and last at the feast, poured out to you duly.
Never without you can gods or mortals hold banquet.

Landscape with Vesta temple in Tivoli, Italy, c. 1600.Each city too had a public hearth sacred to Vesta, where the fire was never allowed to go out. If a colony was to be founded, the colonists carried with them coals from the hearth of the mother-city with which to kindle the fire on the new city's hearth.

The fire was guarded by her priestesses, the Vestales. Every March 1 the fire was renewed. It burned until 391, when the Emperor Theodosius I forbade public pagan worship. One of the Vestales was Rea Silvia, who with Mars conceived Romulus and Remus (see founding of Rome).

3070. Silver denarius, RIC 538, RSC 221, VF, 2.30g, 17.5mm, 0o, Rome mint, 193-196 A.D.; obverse IVLIA DOMNA AVG, draped bust right; reverse VESTA, Vesta seated left, holding palladium and scepter. Ex Forum
ecoli

28 Anonymous issues. Time of Hadrian to Antoninus Pius. Rome Quadrans 117-161 ADReference.
RIC 28; C. 38

Obv.
Griffin seated left

Rev. S-C
Tripod.

2.43 gr
15 mm
6h

Note.
The series of Imperial-era anonymous quadrantes portrays eleven deities: Jupiter, Minerva, Roma, Neptune, Tiber, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Bacchus/Liber, and Hercules, as well as the Four Seasons. They invariably depict either a portrait on the obverse and an attribute of the deity on the reverse, or otherwise an attribute on either side. These designs appear to be influenced, but not directly copied from, earlier designs of the Republican period.okidoki

291Mn Aemilio Lep c.114/3 BC
AR denarius
Obv "ROMA"
Female bust (Roma?) right
Rev "MN AEMILIO LEP"
Equestrian statue on three arches (aqueduct?, the Aqua Marcia)
Rome mint
Crawford 291mauseus

323/1. Julia - denarius (101 BC)AR Denarius (Rome, 101 BC)
O/ Helmeted head of Roma right; corn-ear behind.
R/ Victory in biga right, holding reins in both hands; L IVLI below.
3.84g; 19mm
Crawford 323/1 (47 obverse dies/59 reverse dies)

* Lucius Julius:

Although our moneyer belonged to the very famous gens Julia, his life is completely unknown. The Julii had been among the important patrician gentes of the early Republic, but fell in obscurity in the fourth century. In the second century, a new branch emerged, the Julii Caesares, but Crawford notes that our moneyer cannot be a Caesar because he did not use this cognomen and his coins lack a reference to Venus (cf. RRC 258 and 320).

The corn ear on the obverse refers to grain distributions, which often featured on Republican coins (RRC 242, 243, 245, 260, 261, 306, 330).Joss

4) Antony fouree muleMark Antony
Fouree Denarius
Mule, combining Republican Reverse with Antony Bust

Bust of Antony, ~41BC / Reverse from Marius-Capito, ~81BC

Update May 2013: Now in JayGT4's collection
RM00131 commentsSosius

40 RéisBrazil Republic

1897 AD

Obverse: REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRAZIL

Reverse: A ECONOMIA FAZ A PROSPERIDADEPericles J2

400 ReisRéis of republic

1925 CE

Cupro-Níquel

Obverse: 400 RÉIS REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL.

Reverse: Woman head representing Brazil inside circle of 21 stars.Pericles J2

400 réisMCMI (1901)

Obverse: The National Arms on coffee branches and below 400, inscription “REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL”. Under weapons, the year in Roman numerals MCMI, and at the bottom, pearl necklace.

Reverse: Female figure representing the Republic and freedom, with a tiara inscribed and visible part of “LIBERTAS”, surrounded by a ring with 21 stars and, closer to the edge, a pearl necklace.Pericles J2

400 Réis1925 CE

Obverse: Portrait of Liberty facing right with stars around the rim.

Reverse: REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL 400 RÉIS * 1925 * Pericles J2

47-46 BC Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius ScipioQ METEL SCIPIO IMP
head of Africa right, laur. and clad in elephant's skin, corn-ear before, plough below

EPPIVS LEG F C

Naked Hercules standing facing right, hand on hip resting on club set on rock

North Africa
47-46 BC

Sear 1380/1

Born Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica. He was adopted by his uncle by marriage and father's second cousin Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius. He married Aemilia Lepida, daughter of Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus (son of the Censor Marcus Livius Drusus and wife Cornelia Scipio and adopted by Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus) and wife Claudia (sister of Appius Claudius Pulcher (Senior)), and was the father in law of Pompey the Great, married to his daughter Cornelia Metella, called Quinta Pompeia for being his fifth wife.

He was Tribune in 59 BC and became Consul with Pompey the Great in 52 BC. During Caesar's civil war, he served the party of Pompey and fought against Caesar and Marcus Antonius. In 49 BC he was sent as Proconsul to Syria and the following year he took part in the Battle of Pharsalus, where he commanded the center of the Republican battleline. After Pharsalus he fled to Africa were he commanded an army with Cato the Younger, losing in the Battle of Thapsus. After the defeat he tried to escape but was cornered by the fleet of Publius Sittius when he wrecked the ship as he tried to escape to the Iberian Peninsula, to continue to fight from there. He committed suicide by stabbing himself so he would not fall at the hands of his enemies.

SOLD to Calgary Coin June 20171 commentsJay GT4

5 Cruzados1987 CE

Obverse: State emblem (Star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars. Southern cross inside circle. Flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA FEDERATIVA DO BRASIL 15 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1889

Reverse: BRASIL - 5 - 1987 - CRUZADOSPericles J2

50 Centavos1961 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (Star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars, southern cross inside circle. flanked by tobacco and coffee plant)

REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

Reverse: Denomination above line, date below

50
CENTAVOS
1961Pericles J2

50 Centavos1988 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (Star with a circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars and a Southern cross inside a circle flanked by tobacco and coffee plant).
REPUBLICA FEDERATIVA DO BRASIL
15 de Novembro de 1889

Reverse: BRASIL 50 CENTAVOS 1988Pericles J2

50 Centavos1960 CE

Obverse: State emblem of Brazil (Star with circle within, surrounded by 27 small stars, southern cross inside circle. flanked by tobacco and coffee plant). REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

Reverse: 50 CENTAVOS 1960 Pericles J2

50 Cruzeiros1965 CE

Obverse: Head of Liberty facing left with one star for every Brazilian state. REPUBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL

Reverse: Denomination with a branch of coffee above date. 50 CRUZEIROS 1965 Pericles J2

500 Réis - Independence Centennial1922 CE

Obverse: Dom Pedro and President Pessoa left.
ACCLAM. DA INDEPENDENCIA X. PRESID. DA REPUBLICA
D.PEDRO I. EPITACIO PESSOA
BRASIL

Engraver: Augusto Giorgio Girardet

Reverse: Torch with two branches, value and the dates 1822 and 1922.
7 DE SETEMBRO
500 RÉIS
1822 1922
1° CENTENARIO DA INDEPENDENCIA Pericles J2

52-01 - DIADUMENIANO (Mayo/217 - Junio/218 D.C.)Cesar de su Padre Macrino desde Mayo del 217 D.C. a los 1ros. meses del 218 D.C. y Co Augusto de su Padre hasta Junio del 218 D.C.

AR Denario 20 mm 2.77 gr.

Anv: "M OPEL ANT DIADVMENIAN CAES " - Busto a cabeza desnuda, vestido y viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SPES PVBLICA " - Spes avanzando a izq, portando flores en mano der. y sosteniendo su vestido con la izq.

Acuñada 3ra. Emisión Marzo-Junio 218 D.C.
Ceca: 6ta. Officinae de Roma
Rareza: S

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte II #116 Pag.14 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #7450 Pag.594 - BMCRE #92/3/4 - Cohen Vol.IV #21 Pag.314 - RSC Vol. III #21 Pag.108 - DVM #5 Pag.205 - Szaivert #11-12 - Clay Issue #3.mdelvalle

52-01 - DIADUMENIANO (Mayo/217 - Junio/218 D.C.)Cesar de su Padre Macrino desde Mayo del 217 D.C. a los 1ros. meses del 218 D.C. y Co Augusto de su Padre hasta Junio del 218 D.C.

AR Denario 20 mm 2.77 gr.

Anv: "M OPEL ANT DIADVMENIAN CAES " - Busto a cabeza desnuda, vestido y viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SPES PVBLICA " - Spes avanzando a izq, portando flores en mano der. y sosteniendo su vestido con la izq.

Acuñada 3ra. Emisión Marzo-Junio 218 D.C.
Ceca: 6ta. Officinae de Roma
Rareza: S

Referencias: RIC Vol.IV Parte II #116 Pag.14 - Sear RCTV Vol.II #7450 Pag.594 - BMCRE #92/3/4 - Cohen Vol.IV #21 Pag.314 - RSC Vol. III #21 Pag.108 - DVM #5 Pag.205 - Szaivert #11-12 - Clay Issue #3.mdelvalle

5728 EGYPT, Alexandria. Hadrian Tetradrachm 128-29 AD Hands ClaspedReference.
Emmett 848.13; Dattari 1525; Milne 1274; RPC III, 5728

Issue L IΓ = year 13

Obv. AVT KAI TPAI AΔPIA CEB
Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust right, seen from back, with Paludamentum.

Rev. PATHR PATRIDOC (nobele vader)
Hands clasped, L IΓ

13.08 gr
25 mm
6h

note.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bust of Septimius Severus wearing a paludamentum
In Republican and Imperial Rome, the paludamentum was a cloak or cape fastened at one shoulder, worn by military commanders (e.g. the legionary Legatus) and rather less often by their troops. As supreme commander of the whole Roman army, Roman emperors were often portrayed wearing it in their statues (e.g. the Prima Porta Augustus) and on their coinage. After the reign of Augustus, the paludamentum was restricted to the Emperor.[citation needed] Children would also wear it sometimes, when there was bad weather and they needed protection.
The paludamentum was generally crimson, scarlet, or purple in colour, or sometimes white. It was fastened at the shoulder with a clasp, called a fibula, whose form and size varied through time. Putting on the paludamentum was a ceremonial act on setting out for war.2 commentsokidoki

702a, Augustus, 16 January 27 B.C. - 19 August 14 A.D.Augustus, 27 BC - 14 AD. AE 19mm (5.98 gm). Lydia, Sardeis. Diodoros Hermophilou. Obverse: head right. Reverse: Zeus Lydios standing facing holding scepter and eagle. RPC I, 489, 2986; SNG von Aulock 3142. aVF. Fine portrait. Ex Tom Vossen.

De Imperatoribus Romanis:
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers

AUGUSTUS (31 B.C. - 14 A.D.)

Garrett G. Fagan
Pennsylvania State University

In the course of his long and spectacular career, he put an end to the advancing decay of the Republic and established a new basis for Roman government that was to stand for three centuries. This system, termed the "Principate," was far from flawless, but it provided the Roman Empire with a series of rulers who presided over the longest period of unity, peace, and prosperity that Western Europe, the Middle East and the North African seaboard have known in their entire recorded history. Even if the rulers themselves on occasion left much to be desired, the scale of Augustus's achievement in establishing the system cannot be overstated. Aside from the immense importance of Augustus's reign from the broad historical perspective, he himself is an intriguing figure: at once tolerant and implacable, ruthless and forgiving, brazen and tactful. Clearly a man of many facets, he underwent three major political reinventions in his lifetime and negotiated the stormy and dangerous seas of the last phase of the Roman Revolution with skill and foresight. With Augustus established in power and with the Principate firmly rooted, the internal machinations of the imperial household provide a fascinating glimpse into the one issue that painted this otherwise gifted organizer and politician into a corner from which he could find no easy exit: the problem of the succession.

(For a very detailed and interesting account of the Age of Augustus see: http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm)

Death and Retrospective

In his later years, Augustus withdrew more and more from the public eye, although he continued to transact public business. He was getting older, and old age in ancient times must have been considerably more debilitating than it is today. In any case, Tiberius had been installed as his successor and, by AD 13, was virtually emperor already. In AD 4 he had received grants of both proconsular and tribunician power, which had been renewed as a matter of course whenever they needed to be; in AD 13, Tiberius's imperium had been made co-extensive with that of Augustus. While traveling in Campania, Augustus died peacefully at Nola on 19 August, AD 14. Tiberius, who was en route to Illyricum, hurried to the scene and, depending on the source, arrived too late or spent a day in consultation with the dying princes. The tradition that Livia poisoned her husband is scurrilous in the extreme and most unlikely to be true. Whatever the case about these details, Imperator Caesar Augustus, Son of a God, Father of his Country, the man who had ruled the Roman world alone for almost 45 years, or over half a century if the triumviral period is included, was dead. He was accorded a magnificent funeral, buried in the mausoleum he had built in Rome, and entered the Roman pantheon as Divus Augustus. In his will, he left 1,000 sesterces apiece to the men of the Praetorian guard, 500 to the urban cohorts, and 300 to each of the legionaries. In death, as in life, Augustus acknowledged the true source of his power.

The inscription entitled "The Achievements of the Divine Augustus" (Res Gestae Divi Augustae; usually abbreviated RG) remains a remarkable piece of evidence deriving from Augustus's reign. The fullest copy of it is the bilingual Greek and Latin version carved into the walls of the Temple of Rome and Augustus at Ancyra in Galatia (for this reason the RG used to be commonly referred to as the Monumentum Ancyranum). Other evidence, however, demonstrates that the original was inscribed on two bronze pillars that flanked the entrance to the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome. The inscription remains the only first-person summary of any Roman emperor's political career and, as such, offers invaluable insights into the Augustan regime's public presentation of itself.

In looking back on the reign of Augustus and its legacy to the Roman world, its longevity ought not to be overlooked as a key factor in its success. People had been born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters may have turned out very differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican aristocracy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a monarchy in these years. Augustus's own experience, his patience, his tact, and his great political acumen also played their part. All of these factors allowed him to put an end to the chaos of the Late Republic and re-establish the Roman state on a firm footing. He directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus's ultimate legacy, however, was the peace and prosperity the empire was to enjoy for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor; although every emperor adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, only a handful earned genuine comparison with him.

Copyright © 1999, Garrett G. Fagan.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Augustus (the first Roman emperor, in whose reign Jesus Christ was born) is without any doubt one of the most important figures in Roman history.

It is reported that when he was near death, Augustus addressed those in attendance with these words, "If I have played my part well, applaud!"

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr Cleisthenes

707a, Galba, 3 April 68 - 15 January 69 A.D.Galba AE As, 68-69 AD; cf. SRC 727, 729ff; 27.85mm, 12g; Rome: Obverse: GALBA IMP CAESAR…, Laureate head right; Reverse: S P Q R OB CIV SER in oak wreath; gF+/F Ex. Ancient Imports.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Galba (68-69 A.D.)

John Donahue
College of William and Mary

Introduction
The evidence for the principate of Galba is unsatisfactory. The sources either concentrate on the personality of the man, thereby failing to offer a balanced account of his policies and a firm chronological base for his actions; or, they focus on the final two weeks of his life at the expense of the earlier part of his reign. As a result, a detailed account of his principate is difficult to write. Even so, Galba is noteworthy because he was neither related to nor adopted by his predecessor Nero. Thus, his accession marked the end of the nearly century-long control of the Principate by the Julio-Claudians. Additionally, Galba's declaration as emperor by his troops abroad set a precedent for the further political upheavals of 68-69. Although these events worked to Galba's favor initially, they soon came back to haunt him, ending his tumultuous rule after only seven months.

Early Life and Rise to Power
Born 24 December 3 BC in Tarracina, a town on the Appian Way, 65 miles south of Rome, Servius Galba was the son of C. Sulpicius Galba and Mummia Achaica. Galba's connection with the noble house of the Servii gave him great prestige and assured his acceptance among the highest levels of Julio-Claudian society. Adopted in his youth by Livia, the mother of the emperor Tiberius, he is said to have owed much of his early advancement to her. Upon her death, Livia made Galba her chief legatee, bequeathing him some 50 million sesterces. Tiberius, Livia's heir, reduced the amount, however, and then never paid it. Galba's marriage proved to be a further source of disappointment, as he outlived both his wife Lepida and their two sons. Nothing else is known of Galba's immediate family, other than that he remained a widower for the rest of his life.

Although the details of Galba's early political career are incomplete, the surviving record is one of an ambitious Roman making his way in the Emperor's service. Suetonius records that as praetor Galba put on a new kind of exhibition for the people - elephants walking on a rope. Later, he served as governor of the province of Aquitania, followed by a six-month term as consul at the beginning of 33. Ironically, as consul he was succeeded by Salvius Otho, whose own son would succeed Galba as emperor. Over the years three more governorships followed - Upper Germany (date unknown), North Africa (45) and Hispania Tarraconensis, the largest of Spain's three provinces (61). He was selected as a proconsul of Africa by the emperor Claudius himself instead of by the usual method of drawing lots. During his two-year tenure in the province he successfully restored internal order and quelled a revolt by the barbarians. As an imperial legate he was a governor in Spain for eight years under Nero, even though he was already in his early sixties when he assumed his duties. The appointment showed that Galba was still considered efficient and loyal. In all of these posts Galba generally displayed an enthusiasm for old-fashioned disciplina, a trait consistent with the traditional characterization of the man as a hard-bitten aristocrat of the old Republican type. Such service did not go unnoticed, as he was honored with triumphal insignia and three priesthoods during his career.

On the basis of his ancestry, family tradition and service to the state Galba was the most distinguished Roman alive (with the exception of the houses of the Julii and Claudii) at the time of Nero's demise in 68. The complex chain of events that would lead him to the Principate later that year began in March with the rebellion of Gaius Iulius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis. Vindex had begun to sound out provincial governors about support for a rebellion perhaps in late 67 or early 68. Galba did not respond but, because of his displeasure with Neronian misgovernment, neither did he inform the emperor of these treasonous solicitations. This, of course, left him dangerously exposed; moreover, he was already aware that Nero, anxious to remove anyone of distinguished birth and noble achievements, had ordered his death. Given these circumstances, Galba likely felt that he had no choice but to rebel.

In April, 68, while still in Spain, Galba "went public," positioning himself as a vir militaris, a military representative of the senate and people of Rome. For the moment, he refused the title of Emperor, but it is clear that the Principate was his goal. To this end, he organized a concilium of advisors in order to make it known that any decisions were not made by him alone but only after consultation with a group. The arrangement was meant to recall the Augustan Age relationship between the emperor and senate in Rome. Even more revealing of his imperial ambitions were legends like LIBERTAS RESTITUTA (Liberty Restored), ROM RENASC (Rome Reborn) and SALUS GENERIS HUMANI (Salvation of Mankind), preserved on his coinage from the period. Such evidence has brought into question the traditional assessment of Galba as nothing more than an ineffectual representative of a bygone antiquus rigor in favor of a more balanced portrait of a traditional constitutionalist eager to publicize the virtues of an Augustan-style Principate.
Events now began to move quickly. In May, 68 Lucius Clodius Macer, legate of the III legio Augusta in Africa, revolted from Nero and cut off the grain supply to Rome. Choosing not to recognize Galba, he called himself propraetor, issued his own coinage, and raised a new legion, the I Macriana liberatrix. Galba later had him executed. At the same time, 68, Lucius Verginius Rufus, legionary commander in Upper Germany, led a combined force of soldiers from Upper and Lower Germany in defeating Vindex at Vesontio in Gallia Lugdunensis. Verginius refused to accept a call to the emperorship by his own troops and by those from the Danube, however, thereby creating at Rome an opportunity for Galba's agents to win over Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, the corrupt praetorian prefect since 65. Sabinus was able to turn the imperial guard against Nero on the promise that they would be rewarded financially by Galba upon his arrival. That was the end for Nero. Deposed by the senate and abandoned by his supporters, he committed suicide in June. At this point, encouraged to march on Rome by the praetorians and especially by Sabinus, who had his own designs on the throne, Galba hurriedly established broad-based political and financial support and assembled his own legion (subsequently known as the legio VII Gemina). As he departed from Spain, he abandoned the title of governor in favor of "Caesar," apparently in an attempt to lay claim to the entire inheritance of the Julio-Claudian house. Even so, he continued to proceed cautiously, and did not actually adopt the name of Caesar (and with it the emperorship) until sometime after he had left Spain.

The Principate of Galba
Meanwhile, Rome was anything but serene. An unusual force of soldiers, many of whom had been mustered by Nero to crush the attempt of Vindex, remained idle and restless. In addition, there was the matter concerning Nymphidius Sabinus. Intent on being the power behind the throne, Nymphidius had orchestrated a demand from the praetorians that Galba appoint him sole praetorian prefect for life. The senate capitulated to his pretensions and he began to have designs on the throne himself. In an attempt to rattle Galba, Nymphidius then sent messages of alarm to the emperor telling of unrest in both the city and abroad. When Galba ignored these reports, Nymphidius decided to launch a coup by presenting himself to the praetorians. The plan misfired, and the praetorians killed him when he appeared at their camp. Upon learning of the incident, Galba ordered the executions of Nymphidius' followers. To make matters worse, Galba's arrival was preceded by a confrontation with a boisterous band of soldiers who had been formed into a legion by Nero and were now demanding legionary standards and regular quarters. When they persisted, Galba's forces attacked, with the result that many of them were killed.
Thus it was amid carnage and fear that Galba arrived at the capital in October, 68, accompanied by Otho, the governor of Lusitania, who had joined the cause. Once Galba was within Rome, miscalculations and missteps seemed to multiply. First, he relied upon the advice of a corrupt circle of advisors, most notably: Titus Vinius, a general from Spain; Cornelius Laco, praetorian prefect; and his own freedman, Icelus. Second, he zealously attempted to recover some of Nero's more excessive expenditures by seizing the property of many citizens, a measure that seems to have gone too far and to have caused real hardship and resentment. Third, he created further ill-will by disbanding the imperial corps of German bodyguards, effectively abolishing a tradition that originated with Marius and had been endorsed by Augustus. Finally, he seriously alienated the military by refusing cash rewards for both the praetorians and for the soldiers in Upper Germany who had fought against Vindex.

This last act proved to be the beginning of the end for Galba. On 1 January 69 ("The Year of the Four Emperors"), the troops in Upper Germany refused to declare allegiance to him and instead followed the men stationed in Lower Germany in proclaiming their commander, Aulus Vitellius, as the new ruler. In response, Galba adopted Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus to show that he was still in charge and that his successor would not be chosen for him. Piso, although an aristocrat, was a man completely without administrative or military experience. The choice meant little to the remote armies, the praetorians or the senate, and it especially angered Otho, who had hoped to succeed Galba. Otho quickly organized a conspiracy among the praetorians with the now-familiar promise of a material reward, and on 15 January 69 they declared him emperor and publicly killed Galba; Piso, dragged from hiding in the temple of Vesta, was also butchered.

Assessment
In sum, Galba had displayed talent and ambition during his lengthy career. He enjoyed distinguished ancestry, moved easily among the Julio-Claudian emperors (with the exception of Nero towards the end of his principate), and had been awarded the highest military and religious honors of ancient Rome. His qualifications for the principate cannot be questioned. Even so, history has been unkind to him. Tacitus characterized Galba as "weak and old," a man "equal to the imperial office, if he had never held it." Modern historians of the Roman world have been no less critical. To be sure, Galba's greatest mistake lay in his general handling of the military. His treatment of the army in Upper Germany was heedless, his policy towards the praetorians short sighted. Given the climate in 68-69, Galba was unrealistic in expecting disciplina without paying the promised rewards. He was also guilty of relying on poor advisors, who shielded him from reality and ultimately allowed Otho's conspiracy to succeed. Additionally, the excessive power of his henchmen brought the regime into disfavor and made Galba himself the principal target of the hatred that his aides had incited. Finally, the appointment of Piso, a young man in no way equal to the challenges placed before him, further underscored the emperor's isolation and lack of judgment. In the end, the instability of the post-Julio-Claudian political landscape offered challenges more formidable than a tired, septuagenarian aristocrat could hope to overcome. Ironically, his regime proved no more successful than the Neronian government he was so eager to replace. Another year of bloodshed would be necessary before the Principate could once again stand firm.

Copyright (C) 1999, John Donahue.
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

Cleisthenes

A. Postumius A.f. Sp.n. - Postumia-8A. Postumius A.f. Sp.n. Denarius (3.93 gm) 81 BC. HISPAN, veiled head of Hispania / A ALBIN S N, togate figure standing left between legionary eagle and fasces, POST A F in ex. Sydenham 746, Crawford 372/2, RCV 2974 commentsBud Stewart

A. Stannard Gouge (Al Marco Adjustment): L. Marcius Philippus Denarius, 56 BCEPhoto Source: Naville Numismatics
Roman Republican. L. Marcius Philippus AR Denarius (20mm, 3.92g, 6h), 57/56 BCE.
Obv: ANCVS. Diademed head of Ancus Marcius r.; behind, lituus..
Rev: PHILIPPVS. Equestrian statue, raising right hand, set to right on aqueduct; below horse, a flower; within the arches of the aqueduct, AQVA MARC.
Ref: Babelon Marcia 28. Sydenham 919. RBW 1524. Crawford 425/1.
Prov: Ex Naville Numismatics Auction 56 (22 Mar 2020), Lot 436.

Notes: Al marco weight adjustment (“Stannard gouge”) on obverse. These gouges were sometimes made on Roman Republican denarii before striking in order to reduce the total weight of the batch, bringing it within the desired range (the meaning of “al marco,” as opposed to individual adjustment, “al peso”). According to Stannard (1993: p. 46), these gouges were found on 2.53% of museum specimens he examined. A PDF of his chapter, “The adjustment al marco of the weight of Roman Republican denarii blanks by gouging,” is available on his website: http://www.stannard.info/website/Publications.htmlCurtis JJ

A116-30 -Acuñacion Civica Anonima Semi-Autonoma (311 - 312 D.C.)AE15 ¼ de Follis o Nummus 19 x 15 mm 1.2 gr.
Moneda tradicionalmente atribuida a Julian II hasta que J.Van Heesch en su artículo “The last Civic Coinages and the Religious Police of Maximinus Daza”, publicado en el Numismatic Chronicle vol.153 Pags. 66 y subsiguientes (1993), realiza un detallado estudio de este tipo de acuñación cívica anónima del cuarto siglo, donde demuestra que estas monedas se acuñaron bajos los auspicios de Maximino II Daya conmemorando “La Gran Persecución” de los Cristianos y por consiguiente la Victoria Pagana, al honrar con ellas a los antiguos dioses grecorromanos Júpiter, Apolo, Tyche, y Serapis. Recordemos que en dicha persecución (desde finales del 311 a finales del 312 D.C.) se cerraron Iglesias, encarcelando y/o desterrando a los cristianos. Esta campaña fue particularmente fuerte en Nicomedia, Antioquia y Alejandría, los tres centros principales del Imperio de Oriente. Estas persecuciones menguaron al año siguiente posiblemente como resultado de la preocupación de Maximino II al provocar abiertamente a los Emperadores Asociados de Occidente Constantino I y Licinio I.

Anv: "IOVI CONS - ERVATORI" – Júpiter semidesnudo, sentado en un trono a izquierda, portando globo en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y largo cetro vertical en la izquierda.
Rev: "VICTOR - IA AVGG" – Victoria avanzando a izquierda, portando guirnalda en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y hoja de palma en la izquierda. "ANT" en exergo y "B" en campo derecho.

Acuñada 311 - 312 D.C.
Ceca: Antiochia (Off. 2da.)

Referencias: Cohen Vol.VIII #53 Pag.49 (Julián II) (10f) - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #7952 Pag.94 – Vaggi #2955 - J.Van Heesch “The last Civic Coinages and the Religious Police of Maximinus Daza (1993)” #2.mdelvalle

A122-05 - Fausta (324 - 326 D.C.)AE3 Centenional 21 x 19 mm 3.3 gr.
Hija de Maximiano y esposa de Constantino I.

Anv: "FLAV MAX FAVSTA AVG" - Busto a cabeza desnuda y pelo ondeado, vistiendo túnica, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SPES REI-PVBLICAE" - Emperatriz de pié de frente, viendo a izquierda, velada su cabeza sostiene en brazos a sus hijos Constantino II y Constancio II. "MNÎ“" en exergo.

Acuñada 325/6 D.C.
Ceca: Nicomedia (Off.3ra.)
Rareza: R3

Referencias: RIC Vol.VII (Nicomedia) #131 Pag.621 - Cohen Vol.VII #15 Pag.336 - DVM #6 Pag.293 - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #8326.r.2. Pag.175 - Sear RCTV (1988) #39031 commentsmdelvalle

A123-05 - Helena (318 - 328 D.C.)AE3 Centenional 18 mm 2.6 gr.
Esposa/Concubina de Constancio I Cloro y madre de Constantino I.

Anv: "FL HELENA AVGVSTA" - Busto con diadema en forma de banda decorada por cadenas de perlas, vistiendo túnica y collar formado por dos hiladas de perlas, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SECVRITAS REIPVBLICE" - Securitas/Helena de pié a izquierda, portando una rama en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y bajo y sosteniendo su vestido con mano izquierdo. "SMNÎ“" en exergo.

Acuñada 328/9 D.C.
Ceca: Nicomedia (Off.3ra.)
Rareza: R2

Referencias: RIC Vol.VII (Nicomedia) #159 (Por la forma de la diadema) Pag.626 - Cohen Vol.VII #13 Pag.97 - DVM #3 Pag.293 - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #8334.l.3. Pag.178 - Sear RCTV (1988) #3908mdelvalle

A123-08 - Helena (318 - 328 D.C.)AE3 Centenional 18 x 17 mm 2.9 gr.
Esposa/Concubina de Constancio I Cloro y madre de Constantino I.

Anv: "FL HELENA AVGVSTA" - Busto con diadema consistente en una línea de perlas, vistiendo túnica y collar formado por una hilada de perlas, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SECVRITAS REIPVBLICE" - Securitas/Helena de pié a izquierda, portando una rama en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y bajo y sosteniendo su vestido con mano izquierdo. "MNÎ”" en exergo.

Acuñada 325/6 D.C.
Ceca: Nicomedia (Off.4ta.)
Rareza: R2

Referencias: RIC Vol.VII (Nicomedia) #129 Pag.621 - Cohen Vol.VII #13 Pag.97 - DVM #3 Pag.293 - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #8334.l.2. Pag.178 - Sear RCTV (1988) #39081 commentsmdelvalle

A123-12 - Helena (318 - 328 D.C.)AE4 Centenional reducido 16 x 15 mm 1.2 gr.
Esposa/Concubina de Constancio I Cloro y madre de Constantino I.
Emisión póstuma realizada en este caso por Constancio II, también realizaron emisiones similares Constantino II en Treveri y Constante en Roma.

Anv: "FL IVL HELENA AVG" - Busto con diadema laureada, vistiendo túnica ornamentada y collar formado por dos hiladas de perlas, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "PAX PVBLICA" – Pax (La Paz) de pié a izquierda, portando una rama de olivo en la mano de su brazo derecho extendido y bajo, y cetro transversal en la izquierda. "CONSÎ˜" en exergo.

Acuñada 337 - 340 D.C.
Ceca: Constantinopla (Off.9na.)
Rareza: S

Referencias: RIC Vol.VIII (Constantinople) #49 Pag.450 - Cohen Vol.VII #4 Pag.95 - DVM #4 Pag.293 - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #8531.c. Pag.201 - Sear RCTV (1988) #3910mdelvalle

A127-05 - Hanibaliano Rey de Armenia, el Ponto y Capadocia (335 - 337 D.C.) AE4 Centenional reducido 16 mm 1.6 gr.
Sobrino de Constantino I.

Anv: "FL HANNIBALLIANO REGI" - Busto a cabeza desnuda, con coraza y Paludamentum (capote militar) sobre ella, viendo a derecha.
Rev: "SEC-VRITAS PVBLICA" - El Dios del río Eufrates recostado en el suelo a derecha, sosteniendo un cetro con ambas manos a su derecha. A su derecha un ánfora volcada de la que fluye agua y detrás cañas. "CONSS" en exergo.

Acuñada 336/7 D.C.
Ceca: Constantinopla (Off.3ra.)
Rareza: R5

Referencias: RIC Vol.VII (Constantinople) #148 Pag.590 - Cohen Vol.VII #68 Pag.345 - DVM #2 Pag.294 - Salgado MRBI Vol.III #8498 Pag.196 - Sear RCTV (1988) #3935 - LRBC #1034mdelvalle

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