| Image search results - "Isaurian" |
JUSTINIAN I, AE Decanummium (10 Nummi), struck 550/551 at AntiochObverse: D N IVSTINIANVS P P AVG. Helmeted and cuirassed facing bust of Justinian I, holding globus cruciger in his right hand and shield in his left; cross in right field.
Reverse: Large I surmounted by cross, A/N/N/O in field to left and regnal year X/X/IIII in field to right; in exergue, THU followed by • over Π with a slash through the last letter's right side.
Diameter: 24mm | Weight: 4.79gms | Die Axis: 6
SBCV: 237 | DOC: 255 Class D | MIB: 158
Regarding the mintmark in the exergue, the letter Π with a slash through its right side and tiny o or • above is an abbreviation for "polis". The slash is like the English apostrophe denoting omission of letters, as in the word "can't". Therefore, together with the letters T (Tau) and H (Eta), the mint-mark reads as an abbreviation of "Theoupolis"
550
In January of this year the Ostrogoths under king Totila recaptured Rome after a long siege by bribing the Isaurian garrison. Then, in the summer, the Goths, under Totila, plundered Sicily after they had subdued Corsica and Sardinia, whilst the Gothic fleet also raided the coasts of Greece.
551
In this year Justinian I appointed Narses new supreme commander, who then returned to Italy. In Salona on the Adriatic coast, Narses assembled a Byzantine expeditionary force of around 20,000 to 30,000 men and a contingent of foreign allies which included Lombards, Herulii and Bulgars
When Narses arrived in Venetia he discovered that a powerful Gothic-Frank army of around 50,000 men, under the joint command of the kings Totila and Theudebald, had blocked the principal route to the Po Valley. Not wishing to engage such a formidable force and confident that the Franks would avoid a direct confrontation, Narses skirted the lagoons along the Adriatic shore, using vessels to convey his army from point to point along the coast and thereby arrived at the capital, Ravenna, without encountering any opposition. He then attacked and crushed a small Gothic force at Ariminum, modern Rimini.
In the Autumn of this year the Byzantine fleet of 50 warships destroyed the Gothic naval force under Indulf near Sena Gallica, some 17 miles (27 km) north of Ancona. The Battle of Sena Gallica marked the end of Gothic supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea.*Alex
|
|
129a. Leo IEastern Augustus 7 February 457 – 18 January 474
Thracian of humble origins. He was only a tribune when selected for emperor by Aspar, the magister militum. Shifted much of the political power at court from Germans to Isaurians. Many military difficulties with Vandals and Huns. Died at age 73.lawrence c
|
|
604. Leo IImperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus or Leo I of the Byzantine Empire (401–474), reigned from 457 to 474, also known as Leo the Thracian, was the last of a series of emperors placed on the throne by Aspar, the Alan serving as commander-in-chief of the army. His coronation as emperor on February 7, 457, was the first known to involve the Patriarch of Constantinople. Leo I made an alliance with the Isaurians and was thus able to eliminate Aspar. The price of the alliance was the marriage of Leo's daughter to Tarasicodissa, leader of the Isaurians who, as Zeno, became emperor in 474.
During Leo's reign, the Balkans were ravaged time and again by the West Goths and the Huns. However, these attackers were unable to take Constantinople thanks to the walls which had been rebuilt and reinforced in the reign of Theodosius II and against which they possessed no suitable siege engines.
Leo's reign was also noteworthy for his influence in the Western Roman Empire, marked by his appointment of Anthemius as Western Roman Emperor in 467. He attempted to build on this political achievement with an expedition against the Vandals in 468, which was defeated due to the treachery and incompetence of Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus. This disaster drained the Empire of men and money.
Leo's greatest influence in the West was largely inadvertent and at second-hand: the great Goth king Theodoric the Great was raised at the Leo's court in Constantinople, where he was steeped in Roman government and military tactics, which served him well when he returned after Leo's death to become the Goth ruler of a mixed but largely Romanized people.
Leo also published a New Constitutions or compilation of Law Code[1], Constitution LV concerned Judaism: "JEWS SHALL LIVE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE RITES OF CHRISTIANITY. Those who formerly were invested with Imperial authority promulgated various laws with reference to the Hebrew people, who, once nourished by Divine protection, became renowned, but are now remarkable for the calamities inflicted upon them because of their contumacy towards Christ and God; and these laws, while regulating their mode of life, compelled them to read the Holy Scriptures, and ordered them not to depart from the ceremonies of their worship. They also provided that their children should adhere to their religion, being obliged to do so as well by the ties of blood, as on account of the institution of circumcision. These are the laws which I have already stated were formerly enforced throughout the Empire. But the Most Holy Sovereign from whom We are descended, more concerned than his predecessors for the salvation of the Jews, instead of allowing them (as they did) to obey only their ancient laws, attempted, by the interpretation of prophesies and the conclusions which he drew from them, to convert them to the Christian religion, by means of the vivifying water of baptism. He fully succeeded in his attempts to transform them into new men, according to the doctrine of Christ, and induced them to denounce their ancient doctrines and abandon their religious ceremonies, such as circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, and all their other rites. But although he, to a certain extent, overcame the obstinacy of the Jews, he was unable to force them to abolish the laws which permitted them to live in accordance with their ancient customs. Therefore We, desiring to accomplish what Our Father failed to effect, do hereby annul all the old laws enacted with reference to the Hebrews, and We order that they shall not dare to live in any other manner than in accordance with the rules established by the pure and salutary Christian Faith. And if anyone of them should be proved to, have neglected to observe the ceremonies of the Christian religion, and to have returned to his former practices, he shall pay the penalty prescribed by the law for apostates."
Leo died of dysentery at the age of 73 on January 18, 474.
Bronze AE4, RIC 671, S 4340 var, VG, 1.17g, 10.3mm, 180o, Alexandria mint, obverse D N LEO P F AVG (or similar), pearl diademed, draped and cuirassed bust right; reverse Lion standing left, head right, cross above, ALEA in ex; very rare (R3); ex Forumecoli
|
|
604a. Leo I and VerinaAelia Verina (died 484) was the wife of Byzantine emperor Leo I, and the mother-in-law of Zeno, who was married to her daughter Ariadne.
Her origins are unknown. She originally supported Zeno while the young emperor Leo II was still alive, but after Leo II's death in 474 she turned against her son-in-law. She conspired against him with her lover Patricius, her brother Basiliscus, the Isaurian general Illus, and general Theodoric Strabo, forcing Zeno to flee Constantinople in 475. Basiliscus then briefly became the rival emperor, until 476 when Verina reconciled with Zeno.
Verina then conspired against Illus, who discovered the plot, and with Zeno's consent had her imprisoned. This led to another conspiracy led by Verina's son Marcian (a grandson of the emperor Marcian), but Marcian was defeated and exiled.
In 483 Zeno asked Illus to release Verina, but by now Illus was opposed to Zeno's Monophysite sympathies. Illus allied with Verina and declared a general named Leontius emperor, but Zeno defeated them as well. Illus and Verina fled to Isauria, where Verina died in 484.
Bronze AE4, RIC 713-718, obverse D N LE-O (or similar), Pearl diademed, draped and cuirassed bust right; reverse Empress Verina standing facing holding cross on globe and transverse scepter, b - E across fields, From uncleaned pile
ecoli
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1514; DOC 29)Obv: δNOLЄO N PAMЧLA; Facing and bearded bust of Leo III, wearing chlamys and crown with cross on circlet, in right hand, globus cruiger; in left hand, akakia
Rev: δNCONST-ANTINЧSM; Horizontal bar ornamented with zigzag pattern and at each end with two small globes; above, facing and beardless bust of Constantine, wearing chlamys and crown with cross on circlet; in right hand, globus cruiger; in left hand, akakia; in field right, cross; below M, to left, A/N/N, to right X/X
Dim: 6.01g; 27mmQuant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1516; DOC 38)Obv: LЄON S CON; Two busts facing, Leo on left, bearded, and Constantine, usually slightly smaller, on right. Each wears chlamys with conspicuous tablion and crown with cross, and holds akaka in right
Rev: Large M; X/X/X - N/N/N across field, cross above, A below
Dim: 17 mm, 1.23 gQuant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1516; DOC 39)Obv: LЄ ONS CON; Two busts facing, Leo on left, bearded, and Constantine, usually slightly smaller, on right. Each wears chlamys with conspicuous tablion and crown with cross, and holds akaka in right
Rev: Large M; X/X/X - N/N/N across field, cross above, B below
Dim: 25 mm, 3.37 g
Quant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1516; DOC 39)Obv: LЄ ONS CON; Two busts facing, Leo on left, bearded, and Constantine, usually slightly smaller, on right. Each wears chlamys with conspicuous tablion and crown with cross, and holds akaka in right
Rev: Large M; X/X/X - N/N/N across field, cross above, A below
Quant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Half Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1518; DOC 32-34)Quant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1513A)Obv: Leo standing facing, wearing crown and loros, and holding akakia and long cross
Rev: Large M; X/X/X - N/N/N across field, cross above, A belowQuant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Constantinople (Sear 1514; DOC 29)Obv: δNOLЄO N PAMЧLA; Facing and bearded bust of Leo III, wearing chlamys and crown with cross on circlet, in right hand, globus cruiger; in left hand, akakia
Rev: δNCONST-ANTINЧSM; Horizontal bar ornamented with zigzag pattern and at each end with two small globes; above, facing and beardless bust of Constantine, wearing chlamys and crown with cross on circlet; in right hand, globus cruiger; in left hand, akakia; in field right, cross; below M, to left, A/N/N, to right X/X
Dim: 3.86 g; 19 mmQuant.Geek
|
|
Byzantine Empire: Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) Æ Follis, Syracuse (Sear 1531; DOC 55; Anastasi 414)Obv: Λ/Є/O/N to left, Δ/Є/C/Î to right; Leo standing facing, wearing crown and chlamys, and holding akakia
Rev: K/Ш/N/C to left, Δ/Є/C/Πto right; Constantine standing facing, wearing crown and chlamys, and holding akakia
Quant.Geek
|
|
BYZANTINE, Leo III & Constantine V, AV Solidus, Constantinople c.A.D.737-741.
Leo III, the Isaurian, 717-741 AD. ruling with Constantine V, 720-741 AD. Struck at Constantinople c.A.D.737 - 741.
Obv: Crowned facing bust of Leo, holding globus cruciger and akakia; d N O LEO-N PA MUl.
Rev: Crowned facing bust of Constantine, holding globus and akakia; d N CONST-ANTINuS.
Sear 1504, DOC III 7b.
4.37gm.
|
|
BYZANTINE, Leo III the Isaurian and Constantine V (joint reign). 720-741A.D. Syracuse mint. Bronze follis, 2.273g, 20.2mm. light green patina, VF. Obv: crowned bust of Leo III facing, short beard, chlamys, akakia in right, globus cruciger in left. Legend normally illegible (Sear). Rev: bust of Constantine V as obv. but beardless, below line large M between SC and L. Ref: S 1530, DO 54. VERY RARE
|
|
BYZANTINE, Leo the Isaurian
|
|
Laranda, Lycaonia, c. 332 B.C.Laranda, known today as Karaman, Turkey, was destroyed by Perdiccas in about 322 B.C. and later became a seat of Isaurian pirates.
Silver obol, SNG Levante 225, SNG BnF 443, VF, 0.692g, 11.5mm, 270o, Laranda mint, c. 332 BC; obverse Baal seated left on backless throne, holding grain ear in right, long scepter vertical behind in left; reverse forepart of wolf right, crescent horns downward above, all within a double circular border of dotsRandygeki(h2)
|
|
Leo III MiliariesionLeo III The Isaurian, Miliariesion, from 720, Constantinople. Sear 1512. First of its kind, inspired by the arabic dirham, and first byzantine coin mentioning "basileus".Kingston
|
|
Leo III SolidusLeo III The Isaurian, solidus (725-732), Constantinople. Sear 1504.Kingston
|
|
Marti PaciferoObv. PROBVS AVG, radiate and cuirassed bust right,
Rev. MARTI PACIF, armoured and helmeted mars advancing left, holding olive twig in right, spear and shield in left, cape billowing behind, RQ{Gamma} in exergue,
Rome Mint, AD 282,
20 mm, 3,43 gr
Refs. RIC 177
Historia Augusta 16: "post haec Illyricum petiit. priusquam veniret, Raetias sic pacatas reliquit ut illic ne suspicionem quidem ullius terroris relinqueret. in Illyrico Sarmatos ceterasque gentes ita contudit ut prope sine bello cuncta reciperet quae illi diripuerant. tetendit deinde iter per Thracias atque omnes Geticos populos fama rerum territos et antiqui nominis potentia pressos aut in deditionem aut in amicitiam recepit. his gestis orientem petiit atque itinere potentissimo quodam latrone Palfuerio capto et interfecto omnem Isauriam liberavit, populis atque urbibus Romanis legibus restitutis. barbarorum, qui apud Isauros sunt, vel per terrorem vel urbanitatem loca ingressus est. (...) veteranis omnia illa quae anguste adeuntur loca privata donavit, addens ut eorum filii ab anno octavo decimo, mares dumtaxat, ad militiam mitterentur, ne latrocinare umquam discerent." - [20]causae occidendi eius haec fuerunt: primum quod numquam militem otiosum esse perpessus est, si quidem multa opera militari manu perfecit, dicens annonam gratuitam militem comedere non debere.
"After this he set out for Illyricum, but before going thither he left Raetia in so peaceful a state that there remained therein not even any suspicion of fear. In Illyricum he so crushed the Sarmatians and other tribes that almost without any war at all he got back all they had ravaged. He then directed his march through Thrace, and received in either surrender or friendship all the tribes of the Getae, rightened by the repute of his deeds and brought to submission by the power of his ancient fame. This done, he set out for the East, and while on his march he captured and killed a most powerful brigand, named Palfuerius, and so set free the whole of Isauria and restored the laws of Rome to the tribes and the cities. By fear or favour he entered the places held by the barbarians living among the Isaurians, (...) And so all those places which were difficult of access he gave to his veterans as their own private holdings, attaching thereto the condition that their children, that is, the males only, should be sent to the army at the age of eighteen, in order that they never might learn to be brigands." - "The causes of his murder were these: first of all, he never permitted a soldier to be idle, for he built many works by means of their labour, saying that a soldier should eat no bread that was not earned"Syltorian
|
|
Roman/Byzantine Empire, AV solidus, after 476 ADZENO the Isaurian (474-491 AD), AV solidus, Victory, ex-Eliasberg, struck after 476 AD.
Obverse- D N ZENO PERP AVG, diademed, helmeted and cuirassed three-quarter facing bust, holding spear over shoulder and shield decorated with horseman spearing a fallen enemy.
Reverse- VICTORI-A AVGGG, Victory standing left, holding long cross, two stars in field, CONOB in exergue.
Ex- Stack's auction of the Louis E. Eliasberg, Sr. Collection, 4/15/2005, Lot 24.
Original description: "Zeno (emperor of the East, A.D. 476-491). AV Solidus. Thessalonica, A.D. 476 or later. CHOICE VF / RIC 941. Metcalf 223. Choice VF. 4.27 grams, 20.40 mm. Obv Helmeted, cuirassed bust three-quarters facing of Zeno, holding spear and decorated shield. Rev Victory standing l., holding long cross, two stars in field. A scarcer issue. Scratched in right obverse field and holed, otherwise Choice VF. ($80-130)."
(Price realized: $310.50.)
Comments: (Thessalonica? I thought CONOB meant Constantinople?) This has long been a sentimental favorite of mine, and is likely to remain my only ancient gold for a while. The famous pedigree doesn't hurt, either, though this was probably a "junkbox" item for Eliasberg (haha). This is the centerpiece of my trademark "Holey Gold Hat", which I wear to shows. lordmarcovan
|
|
Sear 1512 - Miliaresion - 720-741 AD - Constantinople mintEmperor: Leo III (the Isaurian) (r. 717-741 AD)
Date: 720-741 AD
Condition: aVF
Denomination: Miliaresion
Obverse:       -    
Cross potent on base and three steps, in a triple border of dots.
Reverse:    ///  / in a triple border of dots.
Constantinople mint
DO 22c; Sear 1512
1.86g; 20.6mm; 345°Pep
|
|
Sear 1514Leo III the Isaurian (717 – 741 CE) Follis, weight 4.37g, diameter 24mm. Mint of Constantinople.Abu Galyon
|
|
Sear 1531Leo III the Isaurian (717 – 741 CE) Follis, weight 2.8g, diameter 17mm. Mint of Syracuse.Abu Galyon
|
|
Sear 1531 - Follis - ca. 731-741 AD - Syracuse mintEmperor: Leo III (the Isaurian) (r. 717-741 AD)
Date: ca. 731-741 AD
Condition: aFine
Denomination: Follis
Obverse: Leo standing, facing, bearded, wearing chlamys and crown with cross. In right hand, akakia. To left,  /// ; To right,  ///
Reverse: Constantine standing, facing, beardless, wearing chlamys and crown with cross. In right hand, akakia. To left,  / //; To right, ///
Syracuse mint
DO 55; Sear 1531
1.35g; 16.0mm; 180°Pep
|
|
Turkey, Elaioussa Sebaste, Islands off Cilicia, TheaterElaiussa, meaning olive, was founded in the 2nd century B.C. on a tiny island attached to the the southern coast of Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey) by a narrow isthmus in Mediterranean Sea. During the reign of Augustus, the Cappadocian king Archelaus founded a new city on the isthmus. Archelaus called it Sebaste, which is the Greek equivalent word of the Latin "Augusta." The city entered a golden age when Vespasian purged Cilicia of pirates in 74 A.D. Towards the end of the 3rd century A.D. however its importance began to wane, due in large part to incursions by the Sassanian King Shapur I in 260 and later by the Isaurians. When its neighbor Corycus began to flourish in the 6th century A.D., Elaiussa Sebaste slowly disappeared from history.
The theater, dating to the 2nd century A.D., is small with only 23 rows of seats, whose steps and decorations unfortunately succumbed to centuries of plunder. Next to the theater is the agora, built in all great probability during the imperial period. At the entrance of the agora, which is surrounded by a semi-destroyed defense wall once rose two monumental fountains in the shape of lions. Inside the agora stands a large church, its floor is covered by sand to protect the mosaic pavement. Elaiussa's only temple stands outside the city on a hill overlooking the sea; only two of the Corinthian columns of this temple, which had 12 on the long and 6 on the short side originally, are standing today. A large bath complex among the lemon groves between the temple and the agora was built with a Roman technique little used in Anatolia. The necropolis is the richest and most impressive of cities of ancient Cilicia. The "Avenue of Graves," located on a hill to the north of the city, preserves close to a hundred graves of various shapes and sizes scattered among the lemon trees. The ancient aqueducts that carried water to the ruins from the Lamos ("Lemon") river also adorn the city’s two entrances. The aqueduct to the west of the city in particular is in relatively good condition. Centuries ago the aqueduct actually ran all the way to Corycus.Joe Sermarini
|
|
ZENO the Isaurian (474-491 AD), AV solidus, Victory, ex-Eliasberg, struck after 476 ADObverse- D N ZENO PERP AVG, diademed, helmeted and cuirassed three-quarter facing bust, holding spear over shoulder and shield decorated with horseman spearing a fallen enemy.
Reverse- VICTORI-A AVGGG, Victory standing left, holding long cross, two stars in field, CONOB in exergue.
Ex- Stack's auction of the Louis E. Eliasberg, Sr. Collection, 4/15/2005, Lot 24.
Original description: "Zeno (emperor of the East, A.D. 476-491). AV Solidus. Thessalonica, A.D. 476 or later. CHOICE VF / RIC 941. Metcalf 223. Choice VF. 4.27 grams, 20.40 mm. Obv Helmeted, cuirassed bust three-quarters facing of Zeno, holding spear and decorated shield. Rev Victory standing l., holding long cross, two stars in field. A scarcer issue. Scratched in right obverse field and holed, otherwise Choice VF. ($80-130)."
(Price realized: $310.50.)
Comments: (Thessalonica? I thought CONOB meant Constantinople?) This has long been a sentimental favorite of mine, and is likely to remain my only ancient gold for a while. The famous pedigree doesn't hurt, either, though this was probably a "junkbox" item for Eliasberg (haha). I don't mind the hole a bit, as I have a large collection of holed coins. This piece does not reside with my regular Roman collection but is the centerpiece of my trademark "Holey Gold Hat", which I wear to shows. lordmarcovan
|
|
[1601b] Arcadius, 19 January 383 - 1 May 408 A.D.ARCADIUS AE2. Struck at Constantinople, 378-383 AD. Obverse: D N ARCADIVS P F AVG, diademed, draped & cuirassed bust right, holding spear and shield, Hand of God above holding wreath; Reverse - GLORIA ROMANORVM, emperor standing facing, head left, holding standard & resting shield at side, bound captive seated on ground to left, head right, CONG in exergue. RIC 53b. Scarce. Extremely Fine, some roughness and corrosion.
De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors and their Families
Arcadius (395-408 A.D.)
Geoffrey S. Nathan
University of California at Los Angeles
Introduction and Early Life
The ineffectual life and reign of Flavius Arcadius are of considerably less importance than the quite significant developments that occurred during his reign. Born either in 377 or 378 to then general Theodosius and Aelia Flavia Flacilla, he and his younger brother, Honorius, ruled the eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire respectively from 395.
Shortly after his birth, his father was raised to the imperial purple in 379. Events in Illyricum with the massive influx of Ostrogothic and Visigothic peoples had resulted in the defeat of the Roman army and the death of the emperor, Valens. Theodosius' first task was to confront the Visigoths who had been ravaging the Balkans. Perhaps in the wake of this difficult and almost insurmountable task, the emperor wanted to insure that his infant son would bear some legitimacy should he die on campaign. Whatever the reason, Arcadius was proclaimed Augustus in January of 383 at the age of five or six. In the following year, his younger brother was born and it seems as if Theodosius initially had been interested in preserving the theoretical position of his elder son. While Arcadius enjoyed the status of Augustus, Honorius only achieved the office of consul posterior in 386. Perhaps the eastern emperor had wanted to avoid the possible conflicts that arose earlier in the century with the family of Constantine. Recent events in the west with the assassination of Gratian by Magnus Maximus may have also played a part: Theodosius initially had to leave the murder of his imperial colleague unavenged and leave the boy- emperor, Valentinian II, largely undefended. The profusion of emperors may well have been seen by Theodosius as kindling for civil war. His own autocratic tendencies may have also meant that he saw only one possible successor for himself.
Nevertheless, Theodosius gave Arcadius very little independence in early life. When he went to campaign against Magnus in the late 380's, he placed his son under the Praetorian Prefect of the East, Tatian, who was the de facto emperor in Theodosius' absence. This began a long series of regencies for Arcadius. The strength of Tatian's position with the eastern governing class made the office of Praetorian Prefect all the more powerful in Constantinople, which in turn made it easier to dominate future emperors. When Theodosius replaced Tatian with the more malleable and more ambitious Rufinus in 392, he had appointed a minister who would centralize even greater authority under the prefecture.
By 393, the emperor's situation had changed radically. When events in the west demanded his attention again, Theodosius was in a much stronger position. The ascendancy of the general, Arbogast, and his own puppet emperor, Eugenius, in the west provided Theodosius an opportunity and, indeed, the obligation to take full control of the Empire. The chance for having his own two sons ruling both halves of Rome not only seemed practical and feasible, but such an arrangement would establish himself as the head of a new dynasty. With thoughts in that direction, Honorius was made Augustus in 393 and accompanied his father west in the summer of 394. Arcadius, although near his majority, was nevertheless placed again under the guardianship (epitropos) of the Prefect of the East. In January of 395, Theodosius the Great died and his two sons took theoretical control of the two halves of the Roman Empire.
Early Reign and the Dominance of Rufinus and Eutropius (395-399)
Arcadius was eighteen when he assumed the throne in the east. We do not know whether or not he was ready for the responsibilities. During the mid-380's, the young emperor had been educated in part by Themistius, a famous pagan statesman, philosopher, and speaker. In what way he affected Arcadius is impossible to say, but surely his teachings must have included statecraft. Perhaps because of this influence, the new emperor's attempt to establish himself as an independent force can be seen in a series of laws passed at his accession. In contrast to trying to create a military image for himself, which would not be allowed either by Rufinus or by the eastern court, he attempted to portray himself as a pious Christian emperor. He enacted several comprehensive laws against heresy and paganism.
This was not necessarily an ineffectual strategy. By celebrating his religious piety, he expressed his power in the only way available to an emperor largely controlled by his ministers. He also perhaps sought to gain support and power from the local governing and religious hierarchies in Constantinople. Arcadius also perhaps thought that he was carrying on in the tradition of his father and so, by extension, might share in some of his glory. Rufinus in contrast wanted to tie himself to the emperor through a marriage connection to his daughter. But in April of 395, Arcadius had taken advantage of the Prefect's temporary absence to marry Aelia Eudoxia, whose guardian, the general, Promotus, had been a bitter enemy of Rufinus. Arcadius had been aided in this move by his own grand chamberlain (praepositus sacri cubiculi), Eutropius, and it perhaps indicated the degree to which he wanted to be free of any regent.
But in reality, Arcadius gained little if any power. Rufinus assumed full control of the east, and the Vandal Stilicho, Theodosius' closest advisor and general, took control of Honorius in the west. The tension between east and west quickly grew when Stilicho, in command of all the eastern and western armies, tried to press his guardianship over Arcadius as well. Moreover, there was considerable resentment against Rufinus in the east for using his office to greatly enrich himself and perhaps, too, because he was a westerner. Rufinus, understanding the perils around him, acted quickly. He had Arcadius demand the return of the eastern armies at once. Stilicho acquiesced, perhaps because the general was basing his claim of guardianship on his own legitimacy: to have taken control of the east and Arcadius by force would have undermined his position there and perhaps in the west. The soldiers returned under the command of the Gothic general, Gainas. With the control of the field army, it seemed as if Rufinus was going to be more thoroughly in control of the east and over Arcadius.
He did not long enjoy his victory. When Arcadius and Rufinus came to greet the armies at Hebdoman near Constantinople in November of 395, the soldiers turned on the Praetorian Prefect and cut him down in front of the emperor. Whether Stilicho instigated the assassination is a matter of some debate, but if he did, he received no benefit from it. The armies remained and Arcadius soon fell under the sway of other ministers. Nevertheless, despite the shock and fear Arcadius may have felt at witnessing such a brutal murder, he probably missed Rufinus' presence not at all and even thought it might provide an opportunity to assert his own authority. For the bureaucracy, the death meant that maintaining civilian control over the army was paramount to their own survival.
Soon thereafter, Eutropius assumed Rufinus' place in dominating Arcadius. Since the grand chamberlain could control access to the emperor and commanded the powerful palace bureaucracy, he was well-placed to dictate what and whom the emperor saw and heard. Military officers--frequently Germanic--who dominated the western government, were held suspect by fearful and jealous civil administrators in Constantinople. Eutropius used that fear to his advantage and froze out any access they may have had to the circles of power. His decision to effectively eliminate the military's input in decision-making would eventually lead to his demise.
It is difficult to determine how popular Eutropius was either with Arcadius or with the wider population. As a eunuch and a former slave, the sources generally portray him very negatively. He nevertheless seems to have enjoyed some support from the emperor, likely aided by Eudoxia with whom the grand chamberlain had close ties. The emperor happily took annual vacations in Galatia, apparently upon the Eutropius' suggestion. Moreover, the chamberlain showed great personal courage and talent in leading a campaign against invading Huns in 397/8, for which he won the consulship and the rank of patrician in the following year of 399. He also seems to have gained considerable support from the local clergy by procuring the patriarchate of Constantinople in 398 for John Chrysostom.
Despite Eutropius' rise to power, however, eastern policy changed little. The religious policies of Theodosius and Arcadius continued, including the forced closure of pagan temples in Gaza. More significantly, tension between the two halves of the empire persisted as Stilicho continued to press for his position as guardian. Although Stilicho led periodic raids into Greece and Thrace to attack the new Visigothic king, Alaric, his victories were incomplete and were more likely meant to keep the Germanic people out of western territory. This meant, among other things, that the Visigoths were an enduring problem for the east. Eutropius in turn supported the revolt of the Count Gildo in Africa, which was under western control, in an attempt to destabilize Stilicho's control and further eastern domains.
The failure of the revolt in 398 was the first step in Eutropius' downfall. The decision to exclude the military men of the period, particularly among the growing importance of Germanic officers, created a dangerous situation. By 399, the dissatisfaction with east-west affairs and the Gildo fiasco resulted in a revolt by the Gothic count, Tribigild. He was apparently in collusion with Gainas, who had taken advantage of the crisis to be named chief general in the east (magister utriusque militiae). Gainas quickly reached an agreement with the rebel and part of the settlement was the dismissal of Eutropius, to which Arcadius--at Eudoxia's urging--agreed. The chamberlain took refuge in the Hagia Sophia, and was exiled to Cyprus. But shortly thereafter, in the autumn of 399, Eutropius was recalled, tried and executed in Chalcedon.
The Age of Eudoxia (400-404)
The death of Eutropius precipitated a serious crisis. Gainas, who had wanted high office for years, now tried to force the hand of Arcadius. Having come to a quick resolution with Tribigild, he moved from Thrace towards Constantinople in 400. With the Germanic troops supporting him, Gainas tried for six months to initiate his own primacy-- including seizing the imperial palace--but which failed. He was forced to withdraw personally from the city to regroup and planned to use his troops remaining there to seize the entire city. But they were slaughtered by the inhabitiants and he fled first to Thrace and then to Asia. Eventually Gainas was killed by the Huns later in that year. His attempted coup ensured that Germanic officers would never again be trusted by the eastern government and would forever be kept out of any important decision-making roles.
The likely successor to Eutropius had been the anti-Germanic leader, Aurelianus, who had succeeded to the Prefecture of the East in 399. But Gainas had exiled him, having forced Arcadius to hand him over, and although Aurelianus returned triumphantly after Gainas' departure, he appears to have lost his hold over the emperor. In the meantime, Aelia Eudoxia had done much to forward her own place in the government. In January of 400, she had been named Augusta, a singular distinction offered to only three other women in the previous century. Her position thus gained a semi-official legitimacy afforded to very few Roman empresses. It has been assumed that because of her beauty, her intelligence, and her fecundity (she bore Arcadius five children), she was able to assert her influence to a point where she was the new power behind the throne.
That assessment, while held by many scholars, is not entirely accurate. While there were several events in which she played a crucial part, they were not terribly important moments during Arcadius' reign. But because Eudoxia was enormously wealthy, because she delivered a male heir in 401, and because she was involved in a highly publicized and drawn out political fight with John Chrysostom, this belief that there was an assumption of power is based more on the notoriety of her acts than on actual control. The fact that there was no one clearly dominating the government nor the emperor during this time implies perhaps that Arcadius had more power during these five years of his reign than at any other time.
There are several indications that he did try to improve and assert his own position. The emperor and his court immediately came to some understanding with the west. The east at the very least gave Honorius and Stilicho moral support in their increasing problems with Alaric. In 402, the feeling of goodwill was sealed by a joint consulship between Arcadius and his brother. The emperor also sought to establish his own military prowess and Christian piety with the erection of a column set up in the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 402/3. The column depicted his military victory over Gainas, crowned with a capital emblazoned with the Greek letters chi-rho, symbolizing his devotion to Christ. Arcadius' son, Theodosius II, was born in 401, and was quickly made Augustus at the age of eight months. The eastern ruler was thus interested in assuring his own dynasty.
In all these things, the emperor was largely successful, but they were largely overshadowed by the feud between his empress and the bishop of Constantinople. Eudoxia had already shown herself able in pushing her interests during the baptism of her son. The Bishop of Constantinople, however, was a much tougher opponent than her husband. John Chrysostom, a strong believer in social justice, had boorishly attacked Eudoxia and many of her friends for the conspicuous luxury in which they lived and displayed themselves. At the height of these attacks, John compared the empress to Jezebel. Eudoxia in turn used her considerable influence to inflame hostility among the clergy against the bishop. Working through Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria, in 403 Chrysostom was deposed and forced into exile at a Church council convened by the emperor (the Synod of the Oak at Chalcedon). However, there was soon such turmoil and uproar in the imperial city that the bishop was recalled a few days later. But the public feuding between Eudoxia and Chrysostom continued until at last she had him banished again in 404, this time permanently. Among other things, it caused a breach between Arcadius and his brother, who had, with Pope Innocent I, tried to support Chrysostom.
Eudoxia's victory was short-lived, however. In October of 404, the Augusta died of a miscarriage. Her death was seen by some as retribution for dismissing John. Whatever the reason, her end also signaled a complete retreat into the background by the emperor and no further initiatives seem to have been pushed by the 27-year-old Augustus.
The Final Years: Anthemius and Death (404-408)
The last years of Arcadius' reign were completely dominated by his Praetorian Prefect of the East, Anthemius. It was perhaps fitting that when the emperor seems to have been most retiring, the most able and energetic of his high ministers came to power. Anthemius worked hard to solve a series of governmental abuses, continue to push for Christianization, and secure the east from attack.
Anthemius first seems to have tried to reconcile with the west, so much so that there was a joint consulship between Anthemius and Stilicho in 405. This might have also been meant to symbolize the Prefect's new dominance, however. Additionally, a number of new laws were passed, curtailing paganism, Judaism and heresy. He tried to make use of the continuing problem of incoming Germanic peoples to combat the Isaurian tribes which had been plaguing Asia Minor since 403. While it failed to halt either group's incursions, it was nevertheless a practical and intelligent strategy. As a means of protecting the imperial capital, Anthemius also strengthened the walls around Constantinople. Our records for the last years of Arcadius' rule are quite spotty, but the emperor himself seems to have completely vanished, even symbolically, from the political scene.
In May of 408, Flavius Arcadius died at the age of 31 of unknown causes. Our only physical description of Arcadius is heavily influenced by the generally low regard in which he was held. The emperor was supposedly short, thin and dark-complected. A more kindly correspondent described him as good-natured and temperate. His son succeeded him without any controversy and the government remained unchanged. Arcadius thus left the world much as he entered it: without much significance and overshadowed by more powerful forces.
Assessment
Despite the ineffectual nature of Arcadius and his rule, a number of significant changes occurred during his stewardship of the eastern empire. His inability to forcefully or at least effectively govern meant that there were few consistent or long-range goals of his administration. With the exception of trying to emphasize the emperor's piety, an important development in the history of the Byzantine monarchy, Arcadius and his ministers were for the most part simply reacting to events.
The emperor became an even more remote figure to the general public. Even in the capital city itself, he was rarely seen: we read in one account that people came running to see the emperor for the first time when he happened to be praying in a local church. A series of "orientalizing" court practices no doubt continued in order to emphasize the symbolic separation of the emperor from the rest of society. The hieratic, almost semi- divine nature of the imperial person, also became a feature of the eastern ruler.
Perhaps of greatest importance was the political and cultural split between east and west. With the death of Theodosius, the two halves of the Roman Empire increasingly went their separate ways. For the most part, the west was thrown back upon its own resources, unable to deal with the problems of the fifth century. The east proved more compact and more resilient: it largely weathered the political storms from without and within.
Moreover, Constantinople fully became the imperial capital of the east, a Roma nova. The emperor rarely left the city and the palace officials became more influential than many of the more theoretically important ministers outside the city. Constantinople was also made an archepiscopate and Chrysostom and others started to push strongly for its primacy in the east. Both public and private building projects beautified and enlarged the city. Under Arcadius' reign, it truly became the second city of the Roman Empire.
Finally, the hard stance against Germanic officers in Roman government became a central feature in the east. While the reasons for this development were inspired largely out of fear and perhaps racism, the eastern Roman Empire did manage to avoid the largely detrimental succession of Germanic generalissimos who controlled the west in the fifth century. It also encouraged the eastern rulers in the following century to take hard lines against other peoples, including the Isaurians, the Huns and the Persians. Taken in all, the era of Arcadius was far more important than Arcadius himself. He perhaps had his father's pretensions, but none of the skills or powers necessary to leave his mark on the Empire.
By Geoffrey S. Nathan, University of California at Los Angeles
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.
Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.Cleisthenes
|
|
|
|
|
