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Image search results - "Caesar."

CONSTANTINE II, as Caesar. 317-337 AD. Æ Follis (22mm - 3.19 g). Trier mint. Struck 321 AD.
obv: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C, laureate and cuirassed bust left, holding Victory on a globe in right hand, mappa in left
rev: BEATA TRAN-QVILLITAS, globe set on altar inscribed VOT/IS/XX in three lines; PTR. RIC VII 312. EF, attractive brown patina.

ex VAuctions Sale : 213 Lot: 101, seller's picture7 commentsareich

PHILIP II as Caesar. AE Tetradrachm struck AD 246 at AlexandriaObverse: M IOV ΦIΛIΠΠOC K CEB. Bare headed and draped bust of Philip II facing right.
Reverse: No legend. Asklepios standing facing left, sacrificing over flaming and garlanded altar out of patera held in his right hand and holding staff, around which a serpent coils, in his left; in left field, LΓ (= regnal year 3 0f Philip I = A.D.245 - 246).
Diameter: 23mm | Weight: 11.9gms | Die Axis: 12
Not in GICV
VERY RARE
1 comments*Alex

2 Augustus and Divus Julius Caesar - 2 Provincials from ThessalonicaTop Coin:
Divus Julius Caesar and Augustus
AE20 of Thessalonika, Macedon

QEOC, laureate head of Julius Caesar right / QECCALONIKEWN, bare head of Augustus right.

Moushmov 6659, BMC 58, SGI 151, RPC 1551

Bottom Coin:
Augustus and Divus Julius Caesar.
AE 18 of Macedon, Thessalonica. Circa 38 BC.

SEBACTOC, bare head of Augustus right / QEOC, bare head of Julius Caesar right.

RPC 5421

I got these early in my collecting in a random lot of semi-cleaned coins. I was very proud of them at the time, and they are still among my favorites, because of the excitement I felt when I realized they were Julius Caesar and Augustus coins--my first of either of the first 2 Caesars.
RI0046
RI0047Sosius

Geta, silver Denarius.198 - 209 CE as Caesar. Laodiciea ad Mare, Syria. Geta Denarius. Laodicea mint, 199 CE
Obverse; P SEPTIMIVS GETA CAES, draped bust right
Reverse; MINERV SANCT, Minerva standing left leaning on a shield & holding reversed spear.
19.1mm, 3.1 g
RSC 83. Geta Denarius, RIC 105a, RSC 83, BMC 750NORMAN K

Herennius Etruscus, Viminacium, 250-251 CE.Herennius Etruacus as Caesar.
Obverse: Q H ETR MES DEC CAES, laureate and cuirassed head right.
Reverse: P M S C OL VIM, Moesia standing with hands over bull and lion.
ANXII in ex. Year 12
24.5 mm., 9.5 g.NORMAN K

271 - 274, Roman Imitative Antoninianus (Barbarous Radiate), produced in Britain and the continent. Struck in the name of TETRICUS II as CAESARObverse: Blundered legend - - IVES - -. Radiate bust of Tetricus II facing right.
Reverse: Likely (PIETA)S AVG. Sacrificial Implements.
From an uncertain British location.
Diameter: 14.5mm | Weight: 2.29gms | Die Axis: 2
SPINK: 749

The term 'barbarous radiates', dating from its use by antiquarians in the 19th century, is still often used to refer to the locally produced unofficial coins which imitated the official Roman antoninianii of the period. These coins were not struck by barbarians outwith the Empire as the name would suggest, nor were they intrinsically forgeries or fakes. Instead they were the result of a period of great instability within the Roman empire during which the western provinces especially often experienced a severe lack of coinage. To fill this void small denomination coinage was unofficially issued in very large numbers. Though some of these coins are fairly close copies of the official coins which they imitate, many others have been produced by die engravers who were patently illiterate and often of limited ability artistically as well. Around 274 Aurelian banned the use of these imitative bronzes when he reformed the currency but it is possible that some "barbarous radiates" were still being produced after that date. Whether individual coins are of British or Continental mintage can really only be ascertained by provenance.

*Alex

274, Roman Imitative Antoninianus (Barbarous Radiate), produced in Britain and the continent. Struck in the name of TETRICUS II as AUGUSTUSObverse: (IMP C TET)RICVS AG. Radiate bust of Tetricus II facing right, seen from behind.
Reverse: Struck from extremely worn reverse die which possibly depicts Salus feeding serpent arising from altar.
Diameter: 14mm | Weight: 1.7gms | Die Axis: 6
SPINK: 749
RARE

This is an irregular issue (barbarous radiate) giving Tetricus II the title of Augustus rather than Caesar.
Interestingly the Historia Augusta makes this statement with regard to Aurelian's triumph in A.D.274. "In the procession was Tetricus also, arrayed in a scarlet cloak, a yellow tunic, and Gallic trousers, and with him his son, whom he had proclaimed in Gaul as Imperator." (Historia Augusta, xxxiv, iii). Imperator was a title that invariably, when referring to an Imperial figure, implied the rank of Augustus, but no regular official coinage issues of Tetricus II citing him as such are known.

The term 'barbarous radiates', dating from its use by antiquarians in the 19th century, is still often used to refer to the locally produced unofficial coins which imitated the official Roman antoninianii of the period. These coins were not struck by barbarians outwith the Empire as the name would suggest, nor were they intrinsically forgeries or fakes. Instead they were the result of a period of great instability within the Roman empire during which the western provinces especially often experienced a severe lack of coinage. To fill this void small denomination coinage was unofficially issued in very large numbers. Though some of these coins are fairly close copies of the official coins which they imitate, many others have been produced by die engravers who were patently illiterate and often of limited ability artistically as well. Around 274 Aurelian banned the use of these imitative bronzes when he reformed the currency but it is possible that some "barbarous radiates" were still being produced after that date. Whether individual coins are of British or Continental mintage can really only be ascertained by provenance.

*Alex

305 - 306, SEVERUS II as Caesar, AE Follis struck 305 - 306 at Londinium (London), EnglandObverse: SEVERVS NOBILISSIMVS CAES. Laureate and cuirassed bust of Severus II facing right.
Reverse: GENIO POPVLI ROMANI. Genius, kalathos on head, standing facing left, holding patera in right hand and cornucopia in left; no mint-mark in exergue.
Diameter: 29mm | Weight: 10.399gms | Die Axis: 6h
RIC VI: 59a | Cohen VII: 24 | SPINK: 712
Rare
Ex. Errett Bishop Collection | Ex. FORVM (USA)

SEVERUS II
Flavius Valerius Severus Augustus was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307. He was born in Northern Illyria (now Albania) and rose to become a senior officer in the Roman army. As an old friend of Galerius, that emperor appointed Severus as Caesar on 1 May 305 and he thus served as junior emperor under Constantius I in the Western Roman Empire.
When Constantius I died in the summer of 306, Severus was promoted to Augustus by Galerius under the rules of succession established under the Tetrarchy. However Constantius I had died on campaign in York and his army in Britain had acclaimed his son, Constantine I, as his successor. Although furious at this elevation, Galerius wanted to avoid any threat of a civil war so he compromised by allowing Constantine to bear the title of Caesar.
When this news reached Maxentius, the son of Maximianus, he revolted and declared himself emperor at Rome,
Galerius sent Severus, at the head of an army which had previously been commanded by Maximianus, to suppress the rebellion. Maxentius asked his father to re-assume the purple and rule the empire with him and Maximianus, who had been reluctant to abdicate, readily accepted. When Severus arrived under the walls of Rome to besiege it his men deserted to their old commander forcing Severus to flee to Ravenna. Maximianus offered to spare his life and treat him humanely if he surrendered peaceably. Severus complied but, despite Maximianus' assurance, he was displayed as a captive, imprisoned and later put to death.
3 comments*Alex

CARINUS as CAESAR. Billon Tetradrachm struck AD 282 - 283 at AlexandriaObverse: A K M A KAPINOC K. Laureate and cuirassed bust of Carinus facing right.
Reverse: No legend. Tyche (Fortuna) standing facing left, holding rudder in her right hand and cornucopiae in her left; in left field, LA (Year one of Carus).
Diameter: 18mm | Weight: 7.5gms | Die Axis: 12
GICV : 4778*Alex

Nero & Drusus Caesar. Died AD 31 and 33, respectively. Æ Dupondius (28mm, 16.30 g, 6h). Rome mint. Struck under Gaius (Caligula), AD 37-38. Nero and Drusus on horsebackJoe Geranio Collection- (Anyone may use as long as credit is given-(Joe Geranio JCIA) Nero & Drusus Caesar. Died AD 31 and 33, respectively. Æ Dupondius (28mm, 16.30 g, 6h). Rome mint. Struck under Gaius (Caligula), AD 37-38. Nero and Drusus on horsebackJoe Geranio

(12) DOMITIAN as Caesar81 - 96 AD
Struck as Caesar under Titus 80 AD
AR Denarius 18 mm 2.31 g
O: CAESAR DIVI F DOMITIANVS COS VII Laureate head right
R: PRINCEPS IVVENTVTIS, Minerva advancing right with javelin and shield
Rome RCV 2674laney

0 - Severus Alexander as Caesar - AR DenariusSeverus Alexander as Caesar. Rome Mint.

obv: " M AUR ALEXANDER CAES "
Bare head right, draped.

rev: " PIETAS AUG " - Priestly Implements.4 commentsrexesq

001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), AR-denarius, Crawf 443-1, Plated (Fouree), Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), #2001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), AR-denarius, Crawf 443-1, Plated (Fouree), Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), #2
avers:-CAESAR in exergue, elephant right, trampling on serpent.
revers:- Simpulum, sprinkler, axe (surmounted by a wolf's head) and priest's hat.
exerg:-/-//CAESAR, diameter: 17-20mm, weight: 2,66g, axes: 5h,
mint: Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), date: 49-48 B.C., ref: Crawford-443/1, Sydneham-1006, RSC-49, BMCRR (Gaul) 27
Q-002
"This is the first coin struck in the name of Julius Caesar. The symbolism on the obverse apparently alludes to the conquest of good over evil, Caesar's victory over the Gauls, while the reverse refers to Caesar's possession of the office of Pontifex Maximus."1 commentsquadrans

001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, #1001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, #1
avers: CAESAR in exergue, elephant right, trampling on a serpent.
reverse: Simpulum, sprinkler, axe (surmounted by a wolf's head) and priest's hat.
exergue: -/-//CAESAR, diameter: 18,5-19,0mm, weight: 3,93g, axes: 4h,
mint: Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), date: 49-48 B.C., ref: Crawford-443/1, Sydenham-1006, RSC-49, BMCRR (Gaul) 27
Q-001
"This is the first coin struck in the name of Julius Caesar. The symbolism on the obverse apparently alludes to the conquest of good over evil, Caesar's victory over the Gauls, while the reverse refers to Caesar's possession of the office of Pontifex Maximus."4 commentsquadrans

001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, #2001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, #2
avers: CAESAR in exergue, elephant right, trampling on a serpent.
reverse: Simpulum, sprinkler, axe (surmounted by a wolf's head) and priest's hat.
exergue: -/-//CAESAR, diameter: 19mm, weight: 3,65g, axes: 10h,
mint: Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), date: 49-48 B.C., ref: Crawford-443/1, Sydenham-1006, RSC-49, BMCRR (Gaul) 27
Q-002
"This is the first coin struck in the name of Julius Caesar. The symbolism on the obverse apparently alludes to the conquest of good over evil, Caesar's victory over the Gauls, while the reverse refers to Caesar's possession of the office of Pontifex Maximus."quadrans

001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, Plated (Fouree), #1001 Caesar (100-44 B.C.), Crawf 443-1, Military mint traveling with Caesar (Gaul), AR-denarius, Plated (Fouree), #1
avers: CAESAR in exergue, elephant right, trampling on a serpent.
reverse: Simpulum, sprinkler, axe (surmounted by a wolf's head) and priest's hat.
exergue: -/-//CAESAR, diameter: 17-20mm, weight: 2,66g, axes: 5h,
mint: Military mint travelling with Caesar (Gaul), date: 49-48 B.C., ref: Crawford-443/1, Sydenham-1006, RSC-49, BMCRR (Gaul) 27
Q-001
"This is the first coin struck in the name of Julius Caesar. The symbolism on the obverse apparently alludes to the conquest of good over evil, Caesar's victory over the Gauls, while the reverse refers to Caesar's possession of the office of Pontifex Maximus."quadrans

001 Julius Caesar. AR denarius 4.5gm0bv: CAESAR elephant trampling serpent
rev: pontifical emplaments,simpulum,asperginum,axe and apex
2 commentshill132

001. Julius CaesarJulius Caesar. 49-48 BC. AR Denarius (18mm, 3.60 g). Military mint traveling with Caesar. Elephant walking right, trampling on serpent / Simpulum, sprinkler, axe (surmounted by a wolf’s head), and priest’s hat. Crawford 443/1; CRI 9; Sydenham 1006; RSC 49. VF, toned
Ex-Cng4 commentsecoli

001. MARK ANTONYJULIUS CAESAR and MARK ANTONY. 43 BC.

Hardly any of his assassins survived Caesar for more than three years, or died a natural death. They were all condemned, and they perished in various ways---some by shipwreck, some in battle; some took their own lives with the self-same dagger with which they had impiously slain Caesar.

Fourré Denarius (19mm, 3.63 gm).

Obv: Bare head of Mark Antony right; lituus behind
Rev: Laureate head of Julius Caesar right, jug behind.
Ref: Crawford 488/1; CRI 118; Sydenham 1165; RSC 2. Near VF, porous, several large breaks in plating revealing the copper core.
Source: Ex Classical Numismatic Group 55 (13 September 2000), lot 1087.
Ex CNG Electronic Auction 105 lot 141 229/150
BFBV

I don't usually buy fourres; but in reality, I have no chance of owning this popular type given my budget. 1 commentsecoli

001d. Pompey JuniorCnaeus Pompey Jr. Elder son of Pompey. After battle of Pharsalus, he joined the remnants of the Pompeian faction in continuing to fight Caesar. Executed in 45 BC after losing battle of Munda.

Coin: Denarius. 20mm, 3.70 g. Corduba mint, Summer 46-Spring 45 BC. Marcus Poblicius, legatus pro praetore. Obv: M POBLICI LEG PRO, behind, P R. Helmeted head of Roma right within bead and reel border. Rev: CN MAGNVS IMP. Hispania standing right, shield on her back, holding two spears over shoulder and presenting palm frond to Pompeian soldier standing left on prow, armed with sword. Crawford 469/1a; CRI 48; Sydenham 1035; RSC 1 (Pompey the Great). From the Peter J. Merani Collection. CNG Auction 490, Lot 159.lawrence c

001h. BrutusMarcus Junius Brutus (also known as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus). The most famed assassin of Caesar. Brutus joined the Pompeian forces fighting against Caesar; after their defeat Caesar pardoned Brutus. Brutus then joined the forces fighting Octavian and Mark Antony. He was defeated at the battles of Philippi in October 42 BC and committed suicide.

Coin: Denarius. Spring/Summer 42 AD. Obv: LEIBERTAS, bare head of Libertas right. Rev: CAEPIO BRVTVS PRO COS, Lyre between a quiver and a laurel branch. Junia 34, Cr501/1, Syd 1287.lawrence c

001h2. BrutusMarcus Junius Brutus. Denarius. 54 BC. Rome mint. Obv: LIBERTAS, bust of Libertas right. Rev: BRVTVS, L. Junius Brutus as consul, between two lictors, preceded by accensus, all walking left.
Crawford 433/1, Sydenham 906.

NOTE: Struck pre-civil war by Brutus as moneyer. The most famous assassin of Caesar.lawrence c

001j. Octavian001j. Octavian
Great-nephew of Julius Caesar, who named him as heir in his will. Octavian used this de facto legitimacy to maneuver for power. In 43 BC he, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. The Triumvirate began proscriptions in which over 2,000 (mostly wealthy) Romans were branded as traitors, deprived of their property, and either executed or driven into exile. This served both to eliminate enemies, and to fill the coffers of the three. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators. The Triumvirate collapsed, and Octavian and Antony eventually fell into all-out war. Primarily due to the military leadership of Agrippa, Octavian won the war, with the decisive victory at Actium in 31 BC. Although Octavian made displays of personal bravery on several occasions, he demonstrated little aptitude for generalship. Octavian then consolidated his power in Rome. A note on naming: he was born Gaius Octavius; after Julius Caesar's death, Octavian insisted on being called Caesar. It was primarily his opponents who continued to call him Octavian. It is now primarily a matter of convenience to use the name Octavian for him in the pre-Augustus period prior to 27 BC.

Coin: Summer 37 BC. AR Denarius (18.5mm, 3.68 g, 12h). Mint in southern or central Italy. Bare head right, wearing beard / Emblems of the augurate and pontificate: simpulum, aspergillum, guttus, and lituus. Crawford 538/1; CRI 312; Sydenham 1334; RSC 91; RBW 1826. From the Kalevala Collection. Ex Bacchus Collection (Heritage 61175, 25 October 2020), lot 97135. CNG Triton XXVII – Session 5, Lot 5665 (17 Jan 2024)1 commentslawrence c

001j1. Octavian Denarius (30-29 BC). Uncertain mint in Italy, possibly Rome. 21mm, 3.39 g. Obv: Laureate head of Apollo of Actium right, with features of Octavian. Rev: IMP CAESAR. Octavian, as city founder and holding whip and plow handle, plowing with yoke of oxen right. RIC² 272. Naumann Auction 114, Lot 643.
1 commentslawrence c

001k. Mark AntonyA partisan for Julius Caesar, who later formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus. Antony probably was a better politician than soldier. His campaign against Parthia was a debacle. Frequent political conflicts with Octavian, ultimately leading to all-out war between the forces of the two. This culminated with the battle of Actium in 31 BC. After losing, Antony committed suicide. He is a particularly difficult historical figure to assess, given that most of the sources for his actions were written by supporters of Augustus. An interesting contrarian view of the relative virtues of Antony and Octavian is Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Clarendon. Although an older book, it remains available and worth reading for a different perspective.

Coin: AR Denarius. Ephesus mint, 41 BC. M. Barbatius Pollio, moneyer. Obv: M ANT. IMP AVG III VIR. R. PC. M. BARBAT Q P, bare head of Antony right
Rev: CAESAR. IMP. PONT. III. VIR. R. P. C., bare head of Octavian right, in slight beard. Cr517/2lawrence c

001l. LepidusMarcus Aemilius Lepidus. Third member of the Triumvirate. A strong supporter of Julius Caesar. After Caesar's death, he was appointed as pontifex maximus. He played very much a subsidiary role in the Triumvirate and was of minimal impact in the struggle between Octavian and Mark Antony. After Octavian won the war, he stripped Lepidus of all his positions except pontifex maximus and put Lepidus in a rather loose exile. He died in 13 or 12 BC.

Coin: November-December 43 BC. AR Denarius (19mm, 3.70 g, 5h). Military mint traveling with Lepidus in Italy. LEPIDVS•PONT•MAX•III•VIR•R•P•C• Bare head of Lepidus right / CAESAR•IMP•III•VIR•R•P•C•, Bare head of Octavian right. Crawford 495/2a; CRI 140; Sydenham 1323; RSC 2a; RBW 1752. CNG Auction 524 Lot 452, 28 Sep 2022.lawrence c

002. AUGUSTUSAUGUSTUS AE as. Lugdunum mint, 10 BC or after. CAESAR PONT MAX, laureate head right. Reverse - the Altar of Lugdunum, Victory on each pedestal, ROM ET AVG below. RCV 1690.

This early type was issued circa 10 BC and the years immediately following, to commemorate the completion of the altar at Lugdunum, which was inaugurated on August 1st, 10 BC. A later type of this series was also issued later in the reign of Augustus, and includes both Augustus and Tiberius as Caesar. ecoli

002d. Gaius & Lucius CaesarGaius was the grandson of Caesar. Adopted by Augustus in 17 BC in an apparent effort to ensure succession. He however died in 4 AD. Lucius was the younger brother of Gaius Caesar. Adopted by Augustus at same time as Gaius, but he died in 2 AD.lawrence c

004f. Nero Caesar & Drusus CaesarBrothers of Caligula, who struck posthumous coins. Both killed by plots of Sejanus, the praetorian prefect, in 31 and 33 AD respectively.lawrence c

006 Gaius Caesar. AE17 3.4gm APAMIAobv: GAOIS KAISAR laur. head r.
rev: ROUFOS/MASONIOS/APAMEWN cult statue of artimis
"son of Agrippa and Julia"hill132

007 Lucius Caesar. AE21 6.7gmobv: CAESAR CORINTH bare head r. of Augustus
rev: C SERVILIO M ANTONIO HIPPARCHO IIVIR/ CL confronted busts of Lucis and Gaius Caesar
"sons of Agrippa and Julia, grandsons of Augustus"hill132

009a. OthoEmperor 15 January -- 17 April 69.

Marcus Salvius Otho. Governor of Lusitania. He initially supported Galba, but ousted him in a coup after Galba refused to name him Caesar. The legions on the Rhine under Vitellius fought Otho's forces, which lost the initial battle. Rather than continue the war, Otho committed suicide.
lawrence c

01 01 Julius Caesar Julius Caesar. 49-44 B.C. AR Denarius. Military mint traveling with Caesar in Gaul. c. 49-48 B.C. (3.72g, 19.0m, 4h). Obv: CAESAR in ex., elephant r. trampling serpent. Rev: simpulum, sprinkler, axe surmounted by wolf’s head, and apex. Cr 443/1; Syd. 1006.

This is the first issue in Caesar’s name. The obverse could symbolize the victory of good over evil in general, or the victory of Caesar’s forces over the Pompeians specifically. The reverse clearly refers to Caesar’s status as Pontifex Maximus.3 commentsLucas H

01 05 Julius CaesarJulius Caesar. AR Denarius. Utica? Mint. 46 A.D. (3.7g, 16mm, 10h). Obv: DICT ITER COS TERT, head of Ceres right, wreathed with grain. Rev: AVGVR PONT MAX, emblems of the augurate and pontificate; aspergillum, guttus, and lituus; M (munus=gift) to right. Craw. 467/1b, Syd. 1024.

This was likely used as a donative by Caesar during his triumph of 46 B.C. While porous, this example is well centered, and the M is clearly on the flan.1 commentsLucas H

01 Julius Caesar, CaptivesJulius Caesar. AR Denarius. Military mint traveling with Caesar in Spain. c. 46-45 B.C. (3.71g, 19.5mm, 6h). Obv: Diademed head of Venus right, Cupid on shoulder. Rev: Gallia seated in attitude of mourning and a Gaulish male captive, hands bound, seated beneath trophy, possibly Vercingetorix. CAESAR in Exergue. RSC 13. Craw. 468/1.

This type was minted during Caesar’s final campaign against Pompeian forces in Spain. The obverse refers to Caesar's mythical descent from the goddess Venus. The reverse refers to Caesar's victories in Gaul and the male Gaulish captive may be Vercingetorix. Not perfect, but well centered, a good state of preservation, with a clear CAESAR on the reverse. Lucas H

01 Julius Caesar, VenusJulius Caesar. AR Denarius. Military mint traveling with Caesar in North Africa c. 47-46B.C. (3.88, 19.2mm, 6h). Obv: Diademed head of Venus right. Rev: CAESAR, Aeneas walking left, carrying Anchises and the Palladium. Craw. 458/1. RSC 12, Sear RCV 1402.

Minted to pay his legends during their African campaign against the Pomeians, this coin harkens to Caesar’s mythical origin from Venus. Aeneas, a survivor of Troy, was the son of Aphrodite’s liaison with the mortal Anchises. Aeneas lead a group of survivors, the Aeneads, ultimately to the Italian peninsula.1 commentsLucas H

012a3. TitusAs Caesar. Denarius. Obv: T CAESAR VESPANSIANVS, laureate head right. Rev: ANNONA AVG, Annona seated left holding two heads of grain, elbow on throne. RIC 972.

NOTE: Caesar 68-69. Augustus 24 June 79 -- 13 September 81. Elder son of Vespasian. Supreme commander in Jewish war after Vespasian left to assume throne. During Titus's rule, eruption of Mt Vesuvius and fire in Rome. Died of illness at age of 42.lawrence c

013. M. Junius Brutus.Denarius, 54 BC, Rome mint.
Obverse: BRVTVS / Bust of L. Junius Brutus.
Reverse: AHALA / Bust of C. Servilius Ahala.
4.09 gm., 19 mm.
Syd. #907; RSC #Junia 30; Sear #398.

The moneyer of this coin is the same Brutus who killed Julius Caesar. However, this coin was minted about a decade earlier. It portrays two ancestors of Brutus:

1. L. Junius Brutus lead the Romans to expel their king L. Tarquinius Superbus. He was one of the founding fathers of the Roman Republic, and was elected one of the first consuls in 509 BC.

2. C. Cervilius Ahala. In 439 BC, during a food shortage in Rome, Spurius Maelius, the richest patrician, bought as much food as he could and sold it cheaply to the people. The Romans, always fearful of kings, thought he wanted to be king. So an emergency was declared and L. Cincinnatus was proclaimed Dictator. Maelius was ordered to appear before Cincinnatus, but refused. So Ahala, as Magister Equitam, killed him in the Forum. Ahala was tried for this act, but escaped condemnation by voluntary exile. 4 commentsCallimachus

013a. DomitianEmperor 14 September 81 – 18 September 96

Younger son of Vespasian. Kept in background as Caesar. His rule was very autocratic, and he was generally unpopular as Emperor. After his assassination involving a court conspiracy, the Senate passed a damnatio memoriae on him.lawrence c

0141 - Denarius Julia 103 BCObv/ Helmeted head of Mars r.; above, control mark C; behind, CAESAR.
Rev/ Venus in biga of Cupids l., holding sceptre and reins; above control mark C; below, lyre; L IVLI L F in ex.

Ag, 17.0 mm, 4.09 g
Mint: Roma.
Moneyer: L. Iulius Caesar.
RRC 320/1 [dies o/r: 92/92] - Syd. 593a - RSC Julia 4
ex-Artemide Aste, auction 9E, lot 9194dafnis

014a. NervaEmperor 18 September 96 – 27 January 98

Marcus Cocceius Nerva. Nerva was a long-serving court official and served as consul. He was 66 when Domitian was assassinated; it is unclear if he was involved in the conspiracy, although Cassius Dio claims that he was aware of it. The Senate quickly proclaimed Nerva as the new emperor. His support among the legions and the Praetorians was very weak, leading him to name Trajan (who was very popular with both) as Caesar. He died of natural causes in 98 AD. He was viewed as the first of the five "Excellent Emperors."lawrence c

015. C. Julius Caesar.Denarius, 46-45 BC, probably minted in Gaul or Spain.
Obverse: Bust of Venus, Cupid at her shoulder.
Reverse: CAESAR / Gaulish captives sitting under a trophy.
3.83 gm., 18.5 mm.
Syd. #1014; RSC #13; Sear #1404.Callimachus

02 - 01 - Julio Cesar (49 - 44 A.C.)AR Denario 18,35 mm de 3,42 gr.

Anv: Emblemas sacerdotales, Simpulum (Copa pequeña con mango), aspergillum/aspersorio (Instrumento para espolvorear o rociar), securix (Hacha sacrificial), apex (gorro/bonete usado por los sacerdotes de Júpiter).
Rev: Elefante pisando un carnix (Instrumento musical galo), CAESAR en exergo.

Acuñada durante los años 49 - 48 A.C.
Ceca: Movil legionaria durante sus campañas probablemente en la Galia, Italia y/o Hispania.

Referencias: Craw. 443/1 - Syd. #1006 - BMCRR #27 - RSC Caesar #49 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #1399mdelvalle

02 - 02 - Julio Cesar (49 - 44 A.C.)AR Denario 19 mm de 3,9 gr.

Anv: ANEPIGRAFA - Busto diademado de Venus a derecha.
Rev: Eneas (Aeneas) avanzando a izquierda cargando a su Padre Anquises (Anchises) sobre su hombro izq. y portando Palladium en mano der, CAESAR en campo derecho.

Acuñada durante los años 47 - 46 A.C.
Ceca: Movil legionaria durante sus campañas contra Metelo Escipión (Metellus Scipio) y Labieno (Labienus) probablemente en el Norte de África.

Referencias: Babelon Vol.2 Julia #10, Pag.11 - Sear CRI #55 - Craw. 458/1 - Syd. #1013 - BMCRR East #31 - RSC Vol.I Caesar #12 Pag.107 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #1402 Pag.268 - Cohen Vol.I #12 Pag. 9 - Albert #1400 - Catalli #658, Pag.2001mdelvalle

02 - 03 - Julio Cesar (49 - 44 A.C.)AR Denario 17 mm de 3,51 gr.

Anv: ANEPIGRAFA - Busto diademado de Venus a der. Cupido detrás de su hombro.
Rev: Dos cautivos sentados a los lados de un trofeo de armas Galo, con escudo ovalado y Carnix en cada brazo, CAESAR en exergo.

Acuñada durante los años 46 - 45 A.C.
Ceca: Movil legionaria durante sus campañas probablemente en la Galia, Italia y/o Hispania.

Referencias: Babelon Julia #11 - Sear CRI #58 - Craw. 468/1 - Syd. #1014 - BMCRR Spain #89 - RSC Vol.I Caesar #13 Pag.107 - Sear RCTV Vol.I #1404 Pag.269 - Cohen Vol.I #13 Pag.10mdelvalle

0248 - Denarius Julia 49-48 BCObv/ Pontifical emblems (culullus, aspergillum, axe, and apex).
Rev/ Elephant r. trampling dragon; in ex., CAESAR.

Ag, 17.5 mm, 3.88 g
Moneyer: Julius Caesar
Mint: moving mint
RRC 443/1 [750/833] - BMCRR Gaul 27
ex-Naville Numismatics, auction 53, lot 4612 commentsdafnis

025. Geta as Caesar. AR Denarius.Geta Caesar, Denarius struck under Septimius Severus and Caracalla, Rome, AD 200-202; AR (g 3,43; mm 19,15); P SEPT GETA CAES PONT, bare-headed, draped and cuirassed bust r., Rv. PRI-NC IVV-ENTVT-IS, Geta standing l., holding baton in his right hand and scepter in his left; to right, trophy. RIC 18; C 1573 commentsLordBest

027 BC-14 AD - AUGUSTUS AE22 of Berytus obv: IMP.CAES AVGVSTVS (bare head of Augustus right)
rev: COL.IVL (founder plowing with two oxen, left)
ref: BMC 52, RPC 4540,
mint: Berytus
8.45gms, 22mm

Colony Berytus (modern Beirut) in Phoenicia. Augustus sent to it part of the veterans takens from two legions (V Macedonica and VIII Augusta) as a reinforcement to the first military settlers of Julius Caesar.berserker

028a03. GetaAs Caesar. AR Denarius. 200-202 AD. Obv: P SEPT GETA CAES PONT, bare-headed, draped bust right. Rev: PRINC IVVENTVTIS, Geta, in military dress, standing left with baton and sceptre, trophy behind.
RIC 18, RSC 157.lawrence c

028a04. GetaAs Caesar. Denarius. 209 AD. Obv: P SEPTIMIVS GETA CAES, bare-headed, draped bust right. Rev: PONTIF COS II, Geta standing left, holding globe and short sceptre. RIC 61a, RSC 117. Ex-Morris collection.lawrence c

040c01. Herennius EtruscusAs Caesar. AR Antoninianus. Obv: Q HER ETR MES DECIVS NOB C, radiate draped bust right. Rev: PIETAS AVGVSTORVM, whip, ladle, jug, patera & lituus. RIC 143, RSC 14.lawrence c

040c02. Herennius EtruscusAs Caesar. AR Antoninianus. Obv: Q HER ETR MES DECIVS NOB C, radiate draped bust right. Rev: PRINC IVVENT, Apollo seated left holding branch and resting arm on lyre. RIC 144b, RSC 20. A FORUM coin.lawrence c

0433 Hadrian Sestertius, Roma 119-21 AD Moneta Reference.
RIC II,586; BMC 1196; Banti --; Strack 552; RIC, 433

Bust A4 with Aegis (Aegis unlisted)

Obv. IMP. CAESAR. TRAIANVS. HADRIANVS. AVG. P. M. TR. P. COS. III.
Laureate, bare bust with Aegis

Rev. MONETA AVGVSTI, S C in field
Moneta standing left holding scales and cornucopia

23.75 gr
34 mm
6h2 commentsokidoki

0435 Hadrian Sestertius, Roma 119-23 AD MonetaReference.
RIC II, 586; C. 974; BMC 1196; Banti 549; Strack 552; RIC 435

Bust C1

Obv. IMP. CAESAR. TRAIANVS. HADRIANVS. AVG. P. M. TR. P. COS. III.
Bust of Hadrian, laureate, draped, right

Rev. MONETA AVGVSTI S C
Moneta, standing left, holding scales and cornucopia

28.03 gr
32 mm
6hokidoki

0450 Nero - AntiochAE semis
54-68 AD
laureate head right, coiled snake before
IM.NER.CLAV_CAESAR.
large S·C within laurel wreath
RPC 4310, BMC 184
6,71g 20mmJ. B.

046d02. SaloninusAs Caesar. Antoninianus. Lyons mint. Obv: SAL VALERIANVS CAES, radiate, draped bust right. Rev: PRINC IVVENT, prince standing left holding baton and transverse spear, one standard to right. RIC V-1, 10; Cohen 61; Sear 10770.lawrence c

06 - Antoninus Pius AR Denarius, bare head of Marcus Aurelius reverse.Ancient Roman Empire.
Silver Denarius struck under Emperor Antoninus Pius(138 - 161 AD); with Marcus Aurelius as Caesar. Rome Mint.

obv: ANTONINUS AUG PIUS PP TRP COS III - Laureate head of Emperor Antoninus Pius facing right.

rev: AURELIUS CAESAR AUG PII F COS - Bare head of a young Marcus Aurelius facing right.rexesq

06. Gordian III as Caesar / RIC 1.Denarius, April - July 238 AD, Rome mint.
Obverse: M ANT GORDIANVS CAES / Bust of Gordian.
Reverse: PIETAS AVGG / Sacrificial implements: lituus, knife, vase, simpulum, and sprinkler.
2.64 gm., 19.5 mm.
RIC #1 (Balbinus & Pupienus); Sear #8557.

This denarius was minted near the beginning of the 99 day reign of Balbinus and Pupienus. Denarii of Gordian III as Caesar are quite rare, so it is likely they were minted only to commemorate the occasion of his proclamation as Caesar. When the antoninianus was re-introduced about half way through the reign, none were issued in Gordian's name.

The AVGG in reverse legend refers to Balbinus and Pupienus. 2 commentsCallimachus

070a06. NumerianAs Caesar. Antoninianus. Ticinum mint, 283 AD. Obv: M AVR NVMERIANVS NOB C, radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right. Rev: PRINCIP IVVENTVT, prince standing left, holding baton and sceptre. Mintmark KAΔ. RIC 361, Cohen 76lawrence c

080a03. GaleriusAs Caesar. AE Antoninianus, full silvering. 22mm, 3.66 g. Antioch mint.
293-295 AD. Obv: GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS NOB CAES, radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right. Rev: IOVI ET HERCVLI CONS CAES, Jupiter standing right, holding long sceptre and globe, facing Hercules standing left, holding Victory, club and lion's skin; Γ between. Mintmark XXI dot. RIC V 719, Cohen 127.lawrence c

087a01. Constantine IIAs Caesar. Follis. Siscia. 20 mm, 3.24 g. Obv: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C. Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust left, holding Victory on globe. Rev: VIRTVS EXERCIT / S-F HL / BSIS (star). Two captives seated at base of standard inscribed VOT X in two lines. RIC 126lawrence c

087a02. Constantine IIAs Caesar. 19mm, 3.17 g, London mint. 323-324 AD. Obv: CONSTANTINVS IVN NC, helmeted, cuirassed bust left. Rev: BEAT TRANQLITAS, globe on altar inscribed VOT-IS-XX, three stars above. Mintmark PLON. RIC VII London 287.lawrence c

087a03. Constantine IIAs Caesar. AE3. 19mm, 2.80 g. Siscia mint. AD 320. Obv: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C, laureate, draped bust left, holding Victory on globe and mappa. Rev: VIRTVS EXERCIT, Standard inscribed VOT X in two lines with two captives sitting at its base. S-F over HL (ligate) across fields. Mintmark Epsilon SIS star-in-crescent. RIC VII Siscia 133; Sear 17291.lawrence c

087a05. Constantine IIAs Caesar. AE3. 18mm, 2.57 g. Lugdunum (Lyons) mint. 332 AD. Obv: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C, laureate, cuirassed bust right. Rev: GLORIA EXERCITVS, two soldiers holding spears and shields with two standards between them. Mintmark dot-in-crescent-PLG. RIC VII Lyons 254; Sear 17317.lawrence c

087a11. Constantine IIAs Caesar. AE follis, issued 317. Heraclea, 2.97g, 20mm. Obv: D N FL CL CONSTANTINVS NOB C; tiny laureate & draped bust left, holding sceptre in right hand and mappa in left hand. Rev: PROVIDENTIAE CAESS; Camp gate with three turrets, without doors, •MHTЄ• in ex. RIC VII Heraclea 26. From the Caesar_Augustus collection, ex. CNG Auction 138, Lot 261, AMCC Auction 3, Lot 336.lawrence c

093a03. DecentiusCaesar. Æ centenionalis. 20 mm, 4.16 g. Lugdunum, A.D. 351/2.
Obv: D N DECENTIVS NOB CAES, bare-headed and cuirassed bust of Decentius right. Rev: VICTORIAE DD NN AVG ET CAE, two Victories standing facing each other, supporting wreath inscribed VOT/V/MVLT/X in four lines between them; SP//RSLG. RIC 137; Lyon 178; Bastien 177.lawrence c

097a01. Julian II The ApostateAs Caesar. AE17. 16.5mm, 1.87 g. Sirmium mint. Obv: D N IVLIA-NVS NOB C, draped and cuirassed bust right. Rev: SPES REIPVBLICE, emperor standing left, helmeted and in military dress, holding globe and spear, -S- to left. Mintmark [A?]SIRM. RIC VIII 87. A FORUM coin.lawrence c

1) Julius Caesar ElephantJULIUS CAESAR.
AR Denarius.
49-48 BC.
Military Mint traveling with Caesar in Gaul

CAESAR in exergue, elephant right, trampling on serpent / Simpulum, sprinkler, axe and priest's hat.

Cr443/1; Syd 1006; BMCRR (Gaul) 27, RSC 49, Sear5 #1399

Good Fine, multiple bankers' marks
RM0031Sosius

10. Severus Alexander as Caesar.Denarius, July 221 - Mar. 222 AD, Rome mint.
Obverse: M AVR ALEXANDER CAES / Bust of Severus Alexander.
Reverse: INDVLGENTIA AVG / Spes walking, holding flower and raising skirt.
3.31 gm., 19 mm.
RIC #2; Sear #7793. 1 commentsCallimachus

105 - MAXIMVS CAESARGaius Iulius Verus Maximus was the son of the Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax and his wife, Caecilia Paulina.

for obverse, reverse and coin details click hereshanxi

108. Didius Julianus193 A.D. - The Year of Five Emperors. On 1 January, the Senate selected Pertinax, against his will, to succeed the late Commodus as Emperor. The Praetorian Guard assassinated him on 28 March and auctioned the throne to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, who offered 300 million sesterces. Outraged by the Praetorians, legions in Illyricum select Septimius Severus as emperor; in Britannia the legions select their governor Clodius Albinus, and in Syria the legions select their governor Pescennius Niger. On 1 June Septimius Severus entered the capital, put Julianus put to death and replaced the Praetorian Guard with his own troops. Clodius Albinus allied with Severus and accepted the title of Caesar. Pescennius Niger was defeated, killed and his head displayed in Rome.

SH67895. Orichalcum sestertius, RIC VI 14, BMCRE V 20, Cohen 3, Cayon III 1, SRCV II 6075, aF, weight 19.437 g, maximum diameter 27.6 mm, die axis 180o, Rome mint, obverse IMP CAES M DID SEVER IVLIAN AVG, laureate head right; reverse CONCORD MILIT, S - C, Concordia Militum standing half left, flanked by legionary eagle before in right and standard behind in left.

Ex-FORVM

1 commentsecoli

11. Severus Alexander as Caesar.Denarius, July 221 - Mar. 222 AD, Rome mint.
Obverse: M AVR ALEXANDER CAES / Bust of Severus Alexander.
Reverse: PIETAS AVG / Sacrificial implements: Littuus, Knife, Vase, Simpulum, and Sprinkler.
3.04 gm., 18 mm.
RIC #3; Sear #7794.Callimachus

118a. Valentinian IIIWestern Augustus 425-455.

In 424, at age 5 he was named Caesar. Son of Constantius III. Supported by Theodosius II over Johannes. Lost Africa to Vandals and also lost most of Gaul and Spain. Very weak ruler. He killed by his own hand Aetius, his best general. Six months later, Valentinian was killed by 2 of his own guards.lawrence c

12. Severus II as Caesar.Follis, 305-306, London mint.
Obverse: SEVERUS NOBILISSIMVS CAES / Laureate bust of Severus II.
Reverse: GENIO POPVLI ROMANI / Genius standing, holding patera and cornucopiae.
Mint mark: (none).
10.51 gm., 30 mm.
RIC #59a; Sear #14630 var.1 commentsCallimachus

1301a, Diocletian, 284-305 A.D. (Antioch)DIOCLETIAN (284 – 305 AD) AE Antoninianus, 293-95 AD, RIC V 322, Cohen 34. 20.70 mm/3.1 gm, aVF, Antioch. Obverse: IMP C C VAL DIOCLETIANVS P F AVG, Radiate bust right, draped & cuirassed; Reverse: CONCORDIA MILITVM, Jupiter presents Victory on a globe to Diocletian, I/XXI. Early Diocletian with dusty earthen green patina.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Diocletian ( 284-305 A.D.)

Ralph W. Mathisen
University of South Carolina

Summary and Introduction
The Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (A.D. 284-305) put an end to the disastrous phase of Roman history known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis" (235-284). He established an obvious military despotism and was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the Roman Empire, which is known variously as the "Dominate," the "Tetrarchy," the "Later Roman Empire," or the "Byzantine Empire." His reforms ensured the continuity of the Roman Empire in the east for more than a thousand years.

Diocletian's Early Life and Reign
Diocletian was born ca. 236/237 on the Dalmatian coast, perhaps at Salona. He was of very humble birth, and was originally named Diocles. He would have received little education beyond an elementary literacy and he was apparently deeply imbued with religious piety He had a wife Prisca and a daughter Valeria, both of whom reputedly were Christians. During Diocletian's early life, the Roman empire was in the midst of turmoil. In the early years of the third century, emperors increasingly insecure on their thrones had granted inflationary pay raises to the soldiers. The only meaningful income the soldiers now received was in the form of gold donatives granted by newly acclaimed emperors. Beginning in 235, armies throughout the empire began to set up their generals as rival emperors. The resultant civil wars opened up the empire to invasion in both the north, by the Franks, Alamanni, and Goths, and the east, by the Sassanid Persians. Another reason for the unrest in the army was the great gap between the social background of the common soldiers and the officer corps.

Diocletian sought his fortune in the army. He showed himself to be a shrewd, able, and ambitious individual. He is first attested as "Duke of Moesia" (an area on the banks of the lower Danube River), with responsibility for border defense. He was a prudent and methodical officer, a seeker of victory rather than glory. In 282, the legions of the upper Danube proclaimed the praetorian prefect Carus as emperor. Diocletian found favor under the new emperor, and was promoted to Count of the Domestics, the commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard. In 283 he was granted the honor of a consulate.

In 284, in the midst of a campaign against the Persians, Carus was killed, struck by a bolt of lightning which one writer noted might have been forged in a legionary armory. This left the empire in the hands of his two young sons, Numerian in the east and Carinus in the west. Soon thereafter, Numerian died under mysterious circumstances near Nicomedia, and Diocletian was acclaimed emperor in his place. At this time he changed his name from Diocles to Diocletian. In 285 Carinus was killed in a battle near Belgrade, and Diocletian gained control of the entire empire.

Diocletian's Administrative and Military Reforms
As emperor, Diocletian was faced with many problems. His most immediate concerns were to bring the mutinous and increasingly barbarized Roman armies back under control and to make the frontiers once again secure from invasion. His long-term goals were to restore effective government and economic prosperity to the empire. Diocletian concluded that stern measures were necessary if these problems were to be solved. He felt that it was the responsibility of the imperial government to take whatever steps were necessary, no matter how harsh or innovative, to bring the empire back under control.

Diocletian was able to bring the army back under control by making several changes. He subdivided the roughly fifty existing provinces into approximately one hundred. The provinces also were apportioned among twelve "dioceses," each under a "vicar," and later also among four "prefectures," each under a "praetorian prefect." As a result, the imperial bureaucracy became increasingly bloated. He institutionalized the policy of separating civil and military careers. He divided the army itself into so-called "border troops," actually an ineffective citizen militia, and "palace troops," the real field army, which often was led by the emperor in person.

Following the precedent of Aurelian (A.D.270-275), Diocletian transformed the emperorship into an out-and-out oriental monarchy. Access to him became restricted; he now was addressed not as First Citizen (Princeps) or the soldierly general (Imperator), but as Lord and Master (Dominus Noster) . Those in audience were required to prostrate themselves on the ground before him.

Diocletian also concluded that the empire was too large and complex to be ruled by only a single emperor. Therefore, in order to provide an imperial presence throughout the empire, he introduced the "Tetrarchy," or "Rule by Four." In 285, he named his lieutenant Maximianus "Caesar," and assigned him the western half of the empire. This practice began the process which would culminate with the de facto split of the empire in 395. Both Diocletian and Maximianus adopted divine attributes. Diocletian was identified with Jupiter and Maximianus with Hercules. In 286, Diocletian promoted Maximianus to the rank of Augustus, "Senior Emperor," and in 293 he appointed two new Caesars, Constantius (the father of Constantine I ), who was given Gaul and Britain in the west, and Galerius, who was assigned the Balkans in the east.

By instituting his Tetrarchy, Diocletian also hoped to solve another problem. In the Augustan Principate, there had been no constitutional method for choosing new emperors. According to Diocletian's plan, the successor of each Augustus would be the respective Caesar, who then would name a new Caesar. Initially, the Tetrarchy operated smoothly and effectively.

Once the army was under control, Diocletian could turn his attention to other problems. The borders were restored and strengthened. In the early years of his reign, Diocletian and his subordinates were able to defeat foreign enemies such as Alamanni, Sarmatians, Saracens, Franks, and Persians, and to put down rebellions in Britain and Egypt. The easter frontier was actually expanded.

.
Diocletian's Economic Reforms
Another problem was the economy, which was in an especially sorry state. The coinage had become so debased as to be virtually worthless. Diocletian's attempt to reissue good gold and silver coins failed because there simply was not enough gold and silver available to restore confidence in the currency. A "Maximum Price Edict" issued in 301, intended to curb inflation, served only to drive goods onto the black market. Diocletian finally accepted the ruin of the money economy and revised the tax system so that it was based on payments in kind . The soldiers too came to be paid in kind.

In order to assure the long term survival of the empire, Diocletian identified certain occupations which he felt would have to be performed. These were known as the "compulsory services." They included such occupations as soldiers, bakers, members of town councils, and tenant farmers. These functions became hereditary, and those engaging in them were inhibited from changing their careers. The repetitious nature of these laws, however, suggests that they were not widely obeyed. Diocletian also expanded the policy of third-century emperors of restricting the entry of senators into high-ranking governmental posts, especially military ones.

Diocletian attempted to use the state religion as a unifying element. Encouraged by the Caesar Galerius, Diocletian in 303 issued a series of four increasingly harsh decrees designed to compel Christians to take part in the imperial cult, the traditional means by which allegiance was pledged to the empire. This began the so-called "Great Persecution."

Diocletian's Resignation and Death
On 1 May 305, wearied by his twenty years in office, and determined to implement his method for the imperial succession, Diocletian abdicated. He compelled his co-regent Maximianus to do the same. Constantius and Galerius then became the new Augusti, and two new Caesars were selected, Maximinus (305-313) in the east and Severus (305- 307) in the west. Diocletian then retired to his palace at Split on the Croatian coast. In 308 he declined an offer to resume the purple, and the aged ex-emperor died at Split on 3 December 316.

Copyright (C) 1996, Ralph W. Mathisen, University of South Carolina
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

1 commentsCleisthenes

1301b, Diocletian, 20 November 284 - 1 March 305 A.D.Diocletian. RIC V Part II Cyzicus 256 var. Not listed with pellet in exegrue
Item ref: RI141f. VF. Minted in Cyzicus (B in centre field, XXI dot in exegrue)Obverse:- IMP CC VAL DIOCLETIANVS AVG, Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right. Reverse:- CONCORDIA MILITVM, Diocletian standing right, holding parazonium, receiving Victory from Jupiter standing left with scepter.
A post reform radiate of Diocletian. Ex Maridvnvm.

De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families

Diocletian ( 284-305 A.D.)

Ralph W. Mathisen
University of South Carolina

Summary and Introduction
The Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (A.D. 284-305) put an end to the disastrous phase of Roman history known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis" (235-284). He established an obvious military despotism and was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the Roman Empire, which is known variously as the "Dominate," the "Tetrarchy," the "Later Roman Empire," or the "Byzantine Empire." His reforms ensured the continuity of the Roman Empire in the east for more than a thousand years.

Diocletian's Early Life and Reign
Diocletian was born ca. 236/237 on the Dalmatian coast, perhaps at Salona. He was of very humble birth, and was originally named Diocles. He would have received little education beyond an elementary literacy and he was apparently deeply imbued with religious piety He had a wife Prisca and a daughter Valeria, both of whom reputedly were Christians. During Diocletian's early life, the Roman empire was in the midst of turmoil. In the early years of the third century, emperors increasingly insecure on their thrones had granted inflationary pay raises to the soldiers. The only meaningful income the soldiers now received was in the form of gold donatives granted by newly acclaimed emperors. Beginning in 235, armies throughout the empire began to set up their generals as rival emperors. The resultant civil wars opened up the empire to invasion in both the north, by the Franks, Alamanni, and Goths, and the east, by the Sassanid Persians. Another reason for the unrest in the army was the great gap between the social background of the common soldiers and the officer corps.

Diocletian sought his fortune in the army. He showed himself to be a shrewd, able, and ambitious individual. He is first attested as "Duke of Moesia" (an area on the banks of the lower Danube River), with responsibility for border defense. He was a prudent and methodical officer, a seeker of victory rather than glory. In 282, the legions of the upper Danube proclaimed the praetorian prefect Carus as emperor. Diocletian found favor under the new emperor, and was promoted to Count of the Domestics, the commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard. In 283 he was granted the honor of a consulate.

In 284, in the midst of a campaign against the Persians, Carus was killed, struck by a bolt of lightning which one writer noted might have been forged in a legionary armory. This left the empire in the hands of his two young sons, Numerian in the east and Carinus in the west. Soon thereafter, Numerian died under mysterious circumstances near Nicomedia, and Diocletian was acclaimed emperor in his place. At this time he changed his name from Diocles to Diocletian. In 285 Carinus was killed in a battle near Belgrade, and Diocletian gained control of the entire empire.

Diocletian's Administrative and Military Reforms
As emperor, Diocletian was faced with many problems. His most immediate concerns were to bring the mutinous and increasingly barbarized Roman armies back under control and to make the frontiers once again secure from invasion. His long-term goals were to restore effective government and economic prosperity to the empire. Diocletian concluded that stern measures were necessary if these problems were to be solved. He felt that it was the responsibility of the imperial government to take whatever steps were necessary, no matter how harsh or innovative, to bring the empire back under control.

Diocletian was able to bring the army back under control by making several changes. He subdivided the roughly fifty existing provinces into approximately one hundred. The provinces also were apportioned among twelve "dioceses," each under a "vicar," and later also among four "prefectures," each under a "praetorian prefect." As a result, the imperial bureaucracy became increasingly bloated. He institutionalized the policy of separating civil and military careers. He divided the army itself into so-called "border troops," actually an ineffective citizen militia, and "palace troops," the real field army, which often was led by the emperor in person.

Following the precedent of Aurelian (A.D.270-275), Diocletian transformed the emperorship into an out-and-out oriental monarchy. Access to him became restricted; he now was addressed not as First Citizen (Princeps) or the soldierly general (Imperator), but as Lord and Master (Dominus Noster) . Those in audience were required to prostrate themselves on the ground before him.

Diocletian also concluded that the empire was too large and complex to be ruled by only a single emperor. Therefore, in order to provide an imperial presence throughout the empire, he introduced the "Tetrarchy," or "Rule by Four." In 285, he named his lieutenant Maximianus "Caesar," and assigned him the western half of the empire. This practice began the process which would culminate with the de facto split of the empire in 395. Both Diocletian and Maximianus adopted divine attributes. Diocletian was identified with Jupiter and Maximianus with Hercules. In 286, Diocletian promoted Maximianus to the rank of Augustus, "Senior Emperor," and in 293 he appointed two new Caesars, Constantius (the father of Constantine I ), who was given Gaul and Britain in the west, and Galerius, who was assigned the Balkans in the east.

By instituting his Tetrarchy, Diocletian also hoped to solve another problem. In the Augustan Principate, there had been no constitutional method for choosing new emperors. According to Diocletian's plan, the successor of each Augustus would be the respective Caesar, who then would name a new Caesar. Initially, the Tetrarchy operated smoothly and effectively.

Once the army was under control, Diocletian could turn his attention to other problems. The borders were restored and strengthened. In the early years of his reign, Diocletian and his subordinates were able to defeat foreign enemies such as Alamanni, Sarmatians, Saracens, Franks, and Persians, and to put down rebellions in Britain and Egypt. The easter frontier was actually expanded.

.
Diocletian's Economic Reforms
Another problem was the economy, which was in an especially sorry state. The coinage had become so debased as to be virtually worthless. Diocletian's attempt to reissue good gold and silver coins failed because there simply was not enough gold and silver available to restore confidence in the currency. A "Maximum Price Edict" issued in 301, intended to curb inflation, served only to drive goods onto the black market. Diocletian finally accepted the ruin of the money economy and revised the tax system so that it was based on payments in kind . The soldiers too came to be paid in kind.

In order to assure the long term survival of the empire, Diocletian identified certain occupations which he felt would have to be performed. These were known as the "compulsory services." They included such occupations as soldiers, bakers, members of town councils, and tenant farmers. These functions became hereditary, and those engaging in them were inhibited from changing their careers. The repetitious nature of these laws, however, suggests that they were not widely obeyed. Diocletian also expanded the policy of third-century emperors of restricting the entry of senators into high-ranking governmental posts, especially military ones.

Diocletian attempted to use the state religion as a unifying element. Encouraged by the Caesar Galerius, Diocletian in 303 issued a series of four increasingly harsh decrees designed to compel Christians to take part in the imperial cult, the traditional means by which allegiance was pledged to the empire. This began the so-called "Great Persecution."

Diocletian's Resignation and Death
On 1 May 305, wearied by his twenty years in office, and determined to implement his method for the imperial succession, Diocletian abdicated. He compelled his co-regent Maximianus to do the same. Constantius and Galerius then became the new Augusti, and two new Caesars were selected, Maximinus (305-313) in the east and Severus (305- 307) in the west. Diocletian then retired to his palace at Split on the Croatian coast. In 308 he declined an offer to resume the purple, and the aged ex-emperor died at Split on 3 December 316.

Copyright (C) 1996, Ralph W. Mathisen, University of South Carolina
Published: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm. Used by permission.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

Cleisthenes

136-138 AD - AELIUS Caesar AR denarius - struck 137 ADobv: L AELIVS CAESAR (bare head right)
rev: TR POT COS II (Concordia seated left, holding patera and leaning on cornucopiae), CONCORD in exergue.
ref: RIC II 436 (Hadrian), RSC 1 (12frcs), BMCRE 981(Hadrian)
Scarce
2.91gms, 18mm

Lucius Ceionius Commodus, a sleek Senator from a distinguished Roman family, was plucked from obscurity by Hadrian in 136 and named as his chosen successor, with the adoptive name Lucius Aelius Caesar. The adoption was marked by the appropriate games and ceremonies, but it soon became evident the young heir was consumptive, leading Hadrian to remark that he'd blown several million sesterces to no purpose. As governor of Pannonia did Aelius no good, the wet, frigid climate worsening his condition. In January 138, Aelius died.berserker

1409a, Julian II "the Philosopher," February 360 - 26 June 363 A.D.Julian II, A.D. 360-363; RIC 167; VF; 2.7g, 20mm; Constantinople mint; Obverse: DN FL CL IVLIANVS P F AVG, helmeted & cuirassed bust right, holding spear & shield; Reverse: VOT X MVLT XX in four lines within wreath; CONSPB in exergue; Attractive green patina. Ex Nemesis.

De Imperatoribus Romanis,
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

Julian the Apostate (360-363 A.D.)

Walter E. Roberts, Emory University
Michael DiMaio, Jr., Salve Regina University

Introduction

The emperor Flavius Claudius Julianus reigned from 360 to 26 June 363, when he was killed fighting against the Persians. Despite his short rule, his emperorship was pivotal in the development of the history of the later Roman empire. This essay is not meant to be a comprehensive look at the various issues central to the reign of Julian and the history of the later empire. Rather, this short work is meant to be a brief history and introduction for the general reader. Julian was the last direct descendent of the Constantinian line to ascend to the purple, and it is one of history's great ironies that he was the last non-Christian emperor. As such, he has been vilified by most Christian sources, beginning with John Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzus in the later fourth century. This tradition was picked up by the fifth century Eusebian continuators Sozomen, Socrates Scholasticus, and Theodoret and passed on to scholars down through the 20th century. Most contemporary sources, however, paint a much more balanced picture of Julian and his reign. The adoption of Christianity by emperors and society, while still a vital concern, was but one of several issues that concerned Julian.

It is fortunate that extensive writings from Julian himself exist, which help interpret his reign in the light of contemporary evidence. Still extant are some letters, several panegyrics, and a few satires. Other contemporary sources include the soldier Ammianus Marcellinus' history, correspondence between Julian and Libanius of Antioch, several panegyrics, laws from the Theodosian Code, inscriptions, and coinage. These sources show Julian's emphasis on restoration. He saw himself as the restorer of the traditional values of Roman society. Of course much of this was rhetoric, meant to defend Julian against charges that he was a usurper. At the same time this theme of restoration was central to all emperors of the fourth century. Julian thought that he was the one emperor who could regain what was viewed as the lost glory of the Roman empire. To achieve this goal he courted select groups of social elites to get across his message of restoration. This was the way that emperors functioned in the fourth century. By choosing whom to include in the sharing of power, they sought to shape society.

Early Life

Julian was born at Constantinople in 331. His father was Julius Constantius, half-brother of the emperor Constantine through Constantius Chlorus, and his mother was Basilina, Julius' second wife. Julian had two half-brothers via Julius' first marriage. One of these was Gallus, who played a major role in Julian's life. Julian appeared destined for a bright future via his father's connection to the Constantinian house. After many years of tense relations with his three half-brothers, Constantine seemed to have welcomed them into the fold of the imperial family. From 333 to 335, Constantine conferred a series of honors upon his three half-siblings, including appointing Julius Constantius as one of the consuls for 335. Julian's mother was equally distinguished. Ammianus related that she was from a noble family. This is supported by Libanius, who claimed that she was the daughter of Julius Julianus, a Praetorian Prefect under Licinius, who was such a model of administrative virtue that he was pardoned and honored by Constantine.

Despite the fact that his mother died shortly after giving birth to him, Julian experienced an idyllic early childhood. This ended when Constantius II conducted a purge of many of his relatives shortly after Constantine's death in 337, particularly targeting the families of Constantine's half-brothers. ulian and Gallus were spared, probably due to their young age. Julian was put under the care of Mardonius, a Scythian eunuch who had tutored his mother, in 339, and was raised in the Greek philosophical tradition, and probably lived in Nicomedia. Ammianus also supplied the fact that while in Nicomedia, Julian was cared for by the local bishop Eusebius, of whom the future emperor was a distant relation. Julian was educated by some of the most famous names in grammar and rhetoric in the Greek world at that time, including Nicocles and Hecebolius. In 344 Constantius II sent Julian and Gallus to Macellum in Cappadocia, where they remained for six years. In 351, Gallus was made Caesar by Constantius II and Julian was allowed to return to Nicomedia, where he studied under Aedesius, Eusebius, and Chrysanthius, all famed philosophers, and was exposed to the Neo-Platonism that would become such a prominent part of his life. But Julian was most proud of the time he spent studying under Maximus of Ephesus, a noted Neo-Platonic philospher and theurgist. It was Maximus who completed Julian's full-scale conversion to Neo-Platonism. Later, when he was Caesar, Julian told of how he put letters from this philosopher under his pillows so that he would continue to absorb wisdom while he slept, and while campaigning on the Rhine, he sent his speeches to Maximus for approval before letting others hear them. When Gallus was executed in 354 for treason by Constantius II, Julian was summoned to Italy and essentially kept under house arrest at Comum, near Milan, for seven months before Constantius' wife Eusebia convinced the emperor that Julian posed no threat. This allowed Julian to return to Greece and continue his life as a scholar where he studied under the Neo-Platonist Priscus. Julian's life of scholarly pursuit, however, ended abruptly when he was summoned to the imperial court and made Caesar by Constantius II on 6 November 355.

Julian as Caesar

Constantius II realized an essential truth of the empire that had been evident since the time of the Tetrarchy--the empire was too big to be ruled effectively by one man. Julian was pressed into service as Caesar, or subordinate emperor, because an imperial presence was needed in the west, in particular in the Gallic provinces. Julian, due to the emperor's earlier purges, was the only viable candidate of the imperial family left who could act as Caesar. Constantius enjoined Julian with the task of restoring order along the Rhine frontier. A few days after he was made Caesar, Julian was married to Constantius' sister Helena in order to cement the alliance between the two men. On 1 December 355, Julian journeyed north, and in Augusta Taurinorum he learned that Alamannic raiders had destroyed Colonia Agrippina. He then proceeded to Vienne where he spent the winter. At Vienne, he learned that Augustudunum was also under siege, but was being held by a veteran garrison. He made this his first priority, and arrived there on 24 June 356. When he had assured himself that the city was in no immediate danger, he journeyed to Augusta Treverorum via Autessioduram, and from there to Durocortorum where he rendezvoused with his army. Julian had the army stage a series of punitive strikes around the Dieuse region, and then he moved them towards the Argentoratum/Mongontiacum region when word of barbarian incursions reached him.

From there, Julian moved on to Colonia Agrippina, and negotiated a peace with the local barbarian leaders who had assaulted the city. He then wintered at Senonae. He spent the early part of the campaigning season of 357 fighting off besiegers at Senonae, and then conducting operations around Lugdunum and Tres Tabernae. Later that summer, he encountered his watershed moment as a military general. Ammianus went into great detail about Julian's victory over seven rogue Alamannic chieftains near Argentoratum, and Julian himself bragged about it in his later writing. After this battle, the soldiers acclaimed Julian Augustus, but he rejected this title. After mounting a series of follow-up raids into Alamannic territory, he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia, and on the way defeated some Frankish raiders in the Mosa region. Julian considered this campaign one of the major events of his time as Caesar.

Julian began his 358 military campaigns early, hoping to catch the barbarians by surprise. His first target was the Franks in the northern Rhine region. He then proceeded to restore some forts in the Mosa region, but his soldiers threatened to mutiny because they were on short rations and had not been paid their donative since Julian had become Caesar. After he soothed his soldiers, Julian spent the rest of the summer negotiating a peace with various Alamannic leaders in the mid and lower Rhine areas, and retired to winter quarters at Lutetia. In 359, he prepared once again to carry out a series of punitive expeditions against the Alamanni in the Rhine region who were still hostile to the Roman presence. In preparation, the Caesar repopulated seven previously destroyed cities and set them up as supply bases and staging areas. This was done with the help of the people with whom Julian had negotiated a peace the year before. Julian then had a detachment of lightly armed soldiers cross the Rhine near Mogontiacum and conduct a guerilla strike against several chieftains. As a result of these campaigns, Julian was able to negotiate a peace with all but a handful of the Alamannic leaders, and he retired to winter quarters at Lutetia.

Of course, Julian did more than act as a general during his time as Caesar. According to Ammianus, Julian was an able administrator who took steps to correct the injustices of Constantius' appointees. Ammianus related the story of how Julian prevented Florentius, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, from raising taxes, and also how Julian actually took over as governor for the province of Belgica Secunda. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, supported Ammianus' basic assessment of Julian in this regard when he reported that Julian was an able representative of the emperor to the Gallic provincials. There is also epigraphic evidence to support Julian's popularity amongst the provincial elites. An inscription found near Beneventum in Apulia reads:
"To Flavius Claudius Julianus, most noble and sanctified Caesar, from the caring Tocius Maximus, vir clarissimus, for the care of the res publica from Beneventum".

Tocius Maximus, as a vir clarissimus, was at the highest point in the social spectrum and was a leader in his local community. This inscription shows that Julian was successful in establishing a positive image amongst provincial elites while he was Caesar.

Julian Augustus

In early 360, Constantius, driven by jealousy of Julian's success, stripped Julian of many troops and officers, ostensibly because the emperor needed them for his upcoming campaign against the Persians. One of the legions ordered east, the Petulantes, did not want to leave Gaul because the majority of the soldiers in the unit were from this region. As a result they mutinied and hailed Julian as Augustus at Lutetia. Julian refused this acclamation as he had done at Argentoratum earlier, but the soldiers would have none of his denial. They raised him on a shield and adorned him with a neck chain, which had formerly been the possession of the standard-bearer of the Petulantes and symbolized a royal diadem. Julian appeared reluctantly to acquiesce to their wishes, and promised a generous donative. The exact date of his acclamation is unknown, but most scholars put it in February or March. Julian himself supported Ammianus' picture of a jealous Constantius. In his Letter to the Athenians, a document constructed to answer charges that he was a usurper, Julian stated that from the start he, as Caesar, had been meant as a figurehead to the soldiers and provincials. The real power he claimed lay with the generals and officials already present in Gaul. In fact, according to Julian, the generals were charged with watching him as much as the enemy. His account of the actual acclamation closely followed what Ammianus told us, but he stressed even more his reluctance to take power. Julian claimed that he did so only after praying to Zeus for guidance.

Fearing the reaction of Constantius, Julian sent a letter to his fellow emperor justifying the events at Lutetia and trying to arrange a peaceful solution. This letter berated Constantius for forcing the troops in Gaul into an untenable situation. Ammianus stated that Julian's letter blamed Constantius' decision to transfer Gallic legions east as the reason for the soldiers' rebellion. Julian once again asserted that he was an unwilling participant who was only following the desire of the soldiers. In both of these basic accounts Ammianus and Julian are playing upon the theme of restoration. Implicit in their version of Julian's acclamation is the argument that Constantius was unfit to rule. The soldiers were the vehicle of the gods' will. The Letter to the Athenians is full of references to the fact that Julian was assuming the mantle of Augustus at the instigation of the gods. Ammianus summed up this position nicely when he related the story of how, when Julian was agonizing over whether to accept the soldiers' acclamation, he had a dream in which he was visited by the Genius (guardian spirit) of the Roman state. The Genius told Julian that it had often tried to bestow high honors upon Julian but had been rebuffed. Now, the Genius went on to say, was Julian's final chance to take the power that was rightfully his. If the Caesar refused this chance, the Genius would depart forever, and both Julian and the state would rue Julian's rejection. Julian himself wrote a letter to his friend Maximus of Ephesus in November of 361 detailing his thoughts on his proclamation. In this letter, Julian stated that the soldiers proclaimed him Augustus against his will. Julian, however, defended his accession, saying that the gods willed it and that he had treated his enemies with clemency and justice. He went on to say that he led the troops in propitiating the traditional deities, because the gods commanded him to return to the traditional rites, and would reward him if he fulfilled this duty.

During 360 an uneasy peace simmered between the two emperors. Julian spent the 360 campaigning season continuing his efforts to restore order along the Rhine, while Constantius continued operations against the Persians. Julian wintered in Vienne, and celebrated his Quinquennalia. It was at this time that his wife Helena died, and he sent her remains to Rome for a proper burial at his family villa on the Via Nomentana where the body of her sister was entombed. The uneasy peace held through the summer of 361, but Julian concentrated his military operations around harassing the Alamannic chieftain Vadomarius and his allies, who had concluded a peace treaty with Constantius some years earlier. By the end of the summer, Julian decided to put an end to the waiting and gathered his army to march east against Constantius. The empire teetered on the brink of another civil war. Constantius had spent the summer negotiating with the Persians and making preparations for possible military action against his cousin. When he was assured that the Persians would not attack, he summoned his army and sallied forth to meet Julian. As the armies drew inexorably closer to one another, the empire was saved from another bloody civil war when Constantius died unexpectedly of natural causes on 3 November near the town of Mopsucrenae in Cilicia, naming Julian -- the sources say-- as his legitimate successor.

Julian was in Dacia when he learned of his cousin's death. He made his way through Thrace and came to Constantinople on 11 December 361 where Julian honored the emperor with the funeral rites appropriate for a man of his station. Julian immediately set about putting his supporters in positions of power and trimming the imperial bureaucracy, which had become extremely overstaffed during Constantius' reign. Cooks and barbers had increased during the late emperor's reign and Julian expelled them from his court. Ammianus gave a mixed assessment of how the new emperor handled the followers of Constantius. Traditionally, emperors were supposed to show clemency to the supporters of a defeated enemy. Julian, however, gave some men over to death to appease the army. Ammianus used the case of Ursulus, Constantius' comes sacrum largitionum, to illustrate his point. Ursulus had actually tried to acquire money for the Gallic troops when Julian had first been appointed Caesar, but he had also made a disparaging remark about the ineffectiveness of the army after the battle of Amida. The soldiers remembered this, and when Julian became sole Augustus, they demanded Ursulus' head. Julian obliged, much to the disapproval of Ammianus. This seems to be a case of Julian courting the favor of the military leadership, and is indicative of a pattern in which Julian courted the goodwill of various societal elites to legitimize his position as emperor.

Another case in point is the officials who made up the imperial bureaucracy. Many of them were subjected to trial and punishment. To achieve this goal, during the last weeks of December 361 Julian assembled a military tribunal at Chalcedon, empanelling six judges to try the cases. The president of the tribunal was Salutius, just promoted to the rank of Praetorian Prefect; the five other members were Mamertinus, the orator, and four general officers: Jovinus, Agilo, Nevitta, and Arbetio. Relative to the proceedings of the tribunal, Ammianus noted that the judges, " . . . oversaw the cases more vehemently than was right or fair, with the exception of a few . . .." Ammianus' account of Julian's attempt at reform of the imperial bureaucracy is supported by legal evidence from the Theodosian Code. A series of laws sent to Mamertinus, Julian's appointee as Praetorian Prefect in Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, illustrate this point nicely. On 6 June 362, Mamertinus received a law that prohibited provincial governors from bypassing the Vicars when giving their reports to the Prefect. Traditionally, Vicars were given civil authority over a group of provinces, and were in theory meant to serve as a middle step between governors and Prefects. This law suggests that the Vicars were being left out, at least in Illyricum. Julian issued another edict to Mamertinus on 22 February 362 to stop abuse of the public post by governors. According to this law, only Mamertinus could issue post warrants, but the Vicars were given twelve blank warrants to be used as they saw fit, and each governor was given two. Continuing the trend of bureaucratic reform, Julian also imposed penalties on governors who purposefully delayed appeals in court cases they had heard. The emperor also established a new official to weigh solidi used in official government transactions to combat coin clipping.

For Julian, reigning in the abuses of imperial bureaucrats was one step in restoring the prestige of the office of emperor. Because he could not affect all elements of society personally, Julian, like other Neo-Flavian emperors, decided to concentrate on select groups of societal elites as intercessors between himself and the general populace. One of these groups was the imperial bureaucracy. Julian made it very clear that imperial officials were intercessors in a very real sense in a letter to Alypius, Vicar of Britain. In this letter, sent from Gaul sometime before 361, the emperor praises Alypius for his use of "mildness and moderation with courage and force" in his rule of the provincials. Such virtues were characteristic of the emperors, and it was good that Alypius is representing Julian in this way. Julian courted the army because it put him in power. Another group he sought to include in his rule was the traditional Senatorial aristocracy. One of his first appointments as consul was Claudius Mamertinus, a Gallic Senator and rhetorician. Mamertinus' speech in praise of Julian delivered at Constantinople in January of 362 is preserved. In this speech, Claudius presented his consular selection as inaugurating a new golden age and Julian as the restorer of the empire founded by Augustus. The image Mamertinus gave of his own consulate inaugurating a new golden age is not merely formulaic. The comparison of Julian to Augustus has very real, if implicit, relevance to Claudius' situation. Claudius emphasized the imperial period as the true age of renewal. Augustus ushered in a new era with his formation of a partnership between the emperor and the Senate based upon a series of honors and offices bestowed upon the Senate in return for their role as intercessor between emperor and populace. It was this system that Julian was restoring, and the consulate was one concrete example of this bond. To be chosen as a consul by the emperor, who himself had been divinely mandated, was a divine honor. In addition to being named consul, Mamertinus went on to hold several offices under Julian, including the Prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Similarly, inscriptional evidence illustrates a link between municipal elites and Julian during his time as Caesar, something which continued after he became emperor. One concrete example comes from the municipal senate of Aceruntia in Apulia, which established a monument on which Julian is styled as "Repairer of the World."

Julian seems to have given up actual Christian belief before his acclamation as emperor and was a practitioner of more traditional Greco-Roman religious beliefs, in particular, a follower of certain late antique Platonist philosophers who were especially adept at theurgy as was noted earlier. In fact Julian himself spoke of his conversion to Neo-Platonism in a letter to the Alexandrians written in 363. He stated that he had abandoned Christianity when he was twenty years old and been an adherent of the traditional Greco-Roman deities for the twelve years prior to writing this letter.

(For the complete text of this article see: http://www.roman-emperors.org/julian.htm)

Julian’s Persian Campaign

The exact goals Julian had for his ill-fated Persian campaign were never clear. The Sassanid Persians, and before them the Parthians, had been a traditional enemy from the time of the Late Republic, and indeed Constantius had been conducting a war against them before Julian's accession forced the former to forge an uneasy peace. Julian, however, had no concrete reason to reopen hostilities in the east. Socrates Scholasticus attributed Julian's motives to imitation of Alexander the Great, but perhaps the real reason lay in his need to gather the support of the army. Despite his acclamation by the Gallic legions, relations between Julian and the top military officers was uneasy at best. A war against the Persians would have brought prestige and power both to Julian and the army.

Julian set out on his fateful campaign on 5 March 363. Using his trademark strategy of striking quickly and where least expected, he moved his army through Heirapolis and from there speedily across the Euphrates and into the province of Mesopotamia, where he stopped at the town of Batnae. His plan was to eventually return through Armenia and winter in Tarsus. Once in Mesopotamia, Julian was faced with the decision of whether to travel south through the province of Babylonia or cross the Tigris into Assyria, and he eventually decided to move south through Babylonia and turn west into Assyria at a later date. By 27 March, he had the bulk of his army across the Euphrates, and had also arranged a flotilla to guard his supply line along the mighty river. He then left his generals Procopius and Sebastianus to help Arsacius, the king of Armenia and a Roman client, to guard the northern Tigris line. It was also during this time that he received the surrender of many prominent local leaders who had nominally supported the Persians. These men supplied Julian with money and troops for further military action against their former masters. Julian decided to turn south into Babylonia and proceeded along the Euphrates, coming to the fortress of Cercusium at the junction of the Abora and Euphrates Rivers around the first of April, and from there he took his army west to a region called Zaitha near the abandoned town of Dura where they visited the tomb of the emperor Gordian which was in the area. On April 7 he set out from there into the heart of Babylonia and towards Assyria.

Ammianus then stated that Julian and his army crossed into Assyria, which on the face of things appears very confusing. Julian still seems to be operating within the province of Babylonia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The confusion is alleviated when one realizes that,for Ammianus, the region of Assyria encompassed the provinces of Babylonia and Assyria. On their march, Julian's forces took the fortress of Anatha, received the surrender and support of several more local princes, and ravaged the countryside of Assyria between the rivers. As the army continued south, they came across the fortresses Thilutha and Achaiachala, but these places were too well defended and Julian decided to leave them alone. Further south were the cities Diacira and Ozogardana, which the Roman forces sacked and burned. Soon, Julian came to Pirisabora and a brief siege ensued, but the city fell and was also looted and destroyed. It was also at this time that the Roman army met its first systematic resistance from the Persians. As the Romans penetrated further south and west, the local inhabitants began to flood their route. Nevertheless, the Roman forces pressed on and came to Maiozamalcha, a sizable city not far from Ctesiphon. After a short siege, this city too fell to Julian. Inexorably, Julian's forces zeroed in on Ctesiphon, but as they drew closer, the Persian resistance grew fiercer, with guerilla raids whittling at Julian's men and supplies. A sizable force of the army was lost and the emperor himself was almost killed taking a fort a few miles from the target city.
Finally, the army approached Ctesiphon following a canal that linked the Tigris and Euphrates. It soon became apparent after a few preliminary skirmishes that a protracted siege would be necessary to take this important city. Many of his generals, however, thought that pursuing this course of action would be foolish. Julian reluctantly agreed, but became enraged by this failure and ordered his fleet to be burned as he decided to march through the province of Assyria. Julian had planned for his army to live off the land, but the Persians employed a scorched-earth policy. When it became apparent that his army would perish (because his supplies were beginning to dwindle) from starvation and the heat if he continued his campaign, and also in the face of superior numbers of the enemy, Julian ordered a retreat on 16 June. As the Roman army retreated, they were constantly harassed by guerilla strikes. It was during one of these raids that Julian got caught up in the fighting and took a spear to his abdomen. Mortally wounded he was carried to his tent, where, after conferring with some of his officers, he died. The date was 26 June 363.

Conclusion

Thus an ignominious end for a man came about who had hoped to restore the glory of the Roman empire during his reign as emperor. Due to his intense hatred of Christianity, the opinion of posterity has not been kind to Julian. The contemporary opinion, however, was overall positive. The evidence shows that Julian was a complex ruler with a definite agenda to use traditional social institutions in order to revive what he saw as a collapsing empire. In the final assessment, he was not so different from any of the other emperors of the fourth century. He was a man grasping desperately to hang on to a Greco-Roman conception of leadership that was undergoing a subtle yet profound change.
Copyright (C) 2002, Walter E. Roberts and Michael DiMaio, Jr. Used by permission.

In reality, Julian worked to promote culture and philosophy in any manifestation. He tried to reduce taxes and the public debts of municipalities; he augmented administrative decentralisation; he promoted a campaign of austerity to reduce public expenditure (setting himself as the example). He reformed the postal service and eliminated the powerful secret police.
by Federico Morando; JULIAN II, The Apostate, See the Julian II Page on NumisWiki

Flavius Claudius Iulianus was born in 331 or maybe 332 A.D. in Constantinople. He ruled the Western Empire as Caesar from 355 to 360 and was hailed Augustus by his legions in Lutetia (Paris) in 360. Julian was a gifted administrator and military strategist. Famed as the last pagan emperor, his reinstatement of the pagan religion earned him the moniker "the Apostate." As evidenced by his brilliant writing, some of which has survived to the present day, the title "the Philosopher" may have been more appropriate. He died from wounds suffered during the Persian campaign of 363 A.D. Joseph Sermarini, FORVM.

Edited by J. P. Fitzgerald, Jr.

2 commentsCleisthenes

145-161 AD - FAUSTINA Junior AE dupondius - struck 145-46 ADobv: FAVSTINA AVGVSTA (draped bust right)
rev: PIETAS / S.C. (Pietas standing left, holding cornucopiae, child -Lucilla?- at her feet left)
ref: RIC III 1402 (Ant.Pius), Cohen 174, BMC 2189
mint: Rome
8.42gms, 26mm

This coin was struck after her wedding with Aurelius Caesar.berserker

15 Antoninus Pius RIC 417bAntoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, as Caesar. AR Denarius. Rome Mint. 140-144 AD. (3.32g; 18mm) Obv: ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P COS III, Laureate head of Pius right. Rev:
AVRELIVS CAESAR AVG P II F COS, Bare headed and draped bust of Aurelius right.
RIC 417b; RSC 22a.

Ex: Pecunem1 commentsPaddy

150 Antoninus PiusAntoninus Pius AE Dupondius. ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P, radiate head right / COS IIII S-C, Salus standing left feeding snake arising from altar to left & holding rudder to right.
Cohen 279 B.M.C. 1732 RIC 798, sear5 #4269 26mm 139 A.D.

Finally got a photo of my own that looked good enough lol.Took over a year but got it!

In 139A.D.
"The Tomb of Hadrian in Rome is completed, emperor Antoninus Pius cremates the body of Hadrian and placed his ashes together with that of his wife Vibia Sabina and his adopted son, Lucius Aelius in the mausoleum.
Marcus Aurelius is named Caesar. He marries Faustina the Younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius."8 commentsRandygeki(h2)

1ae2 FulviaFirst wife of Marc Antony

ca 83-40 BC

AR Quinarius
Bust of Victory right with the likeness of Fulvia, III VIR R P C
Lion right between A and XLI; ANTONI above, IMP in ex

RSC 3, Syd 1163, Cr489/6

Fulvia was the first Roman non-mythological woman to appear on Roman coins. She gained access to power through her marriage to three of the most promising men of her generation, Publius Clodius Pulcher, Gaius Scribonius Curio, and Marcus Antonius. All three husbands were politically active populares, tribunes, and supporters of Julius Caesar. Fulvia married Mark Antony in 47 or 46 BC, a few years after Curio's death, although Cicero suggested that Fulvia and Antony had had a relationship since 58 BC. According to him, while Fulvia and Antony were married, Antony once left a military post to sneak back into Rome during the night and personally deliver a love letter to Fulvia describing his love for her and how he had stopped seeing the famous actress Cytheris. Cicero also suggested that Antony married Fulvia for her money. At the time of their marriage, Antony was an established politician. He had already been tribune in 49 BC, commanded armies under Caesar and was Master of the Horse in 47 BC. As a couple, they were a formidable political force in Rome, and had two sons together, Marcus Antonius Antyllus and Iullus Antonius.

Suetonius wrote, "[Antony] took a wife, Fulvia, the widow of Clodius the demagogue, a woman not born for spinning or housewifery, nor one that could be content with ruling a private husband, but prepared to govern a first magistrate, or give orders to a commander-in-chief. So that Cleopatra had great obligations to her for having taught Antony to be so good a servant, he coming to her hands tame and broken into entire obedience to the commands of a mistress. He used to play all sorts of sportive, boyish tricks, to keep Fulvia in good-humour. As, for example, when Caesar, after his victory in Spain, was on his return, Antony, among the rest, went out to meet him; and, a rumour being spread that Caesar was killed and the enemy marching into Italy, he returned to Rome, and, disguising himself, came to her by night muffled up as a servant that brought letters from Antony. She, with great impatience, before received the letter, asks if Antony were well, and instead of an answer he gives her the letter; and, as she was opening it, took her about the neck and kissed her."

After Julius Caesar was assassinated, Antony became the most powerful man in Rome. Fulvia was heavily involved in the political aftermath. After Caesar's death, the senate realized his popularity and declared that they would pass all of Caesar's planned laws. Antony had attained possession of Caesar's papers, and with the ability to produce papers in support of any law, Fulvia and Antony made a fortune and gained immense power. She allegedly accompanied Antony to his military camp at Brundisium in 44 BC. Appian wrote that in December 44 and again in 41 BC, while Antony was abroad and Cicero campaigned for Antony to be declared an enemy of the state, Fulvia attempted to block such declarations by soliciting support on Antony's behalf.

Antony formed the second triumvirate with Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus on 43 BC and began to conduct proscriptions. To solidify the political alliance, Fulvia's daughter Clodia was married to the young Octavian. Appian and Cassius Dio describe Fulvia as being involved in the violent proscriptions, which were used to destroy enemies and gain badly needed funds to secure control of Rome. Antony pursued his political enemies, chief among them being Cicero, who had openly criticized him for abusing his powers as consul after Caesar's assassination. Though many ancient sources wrote that Fulvia was happy to take revenge against Cicero for Antony's and Clodius' sake, Cassius Dio is the only ancient source that describes the joy with which she pierced the tongue of the dead Cicero with her golden hairpins, as a final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.

In 42 BC, Antony and Octavian left Rome to pursue Julius Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Fulvia was left behind as the most powerful woman in Rome. According to Cassius Dio, Fulvia controlled the politics of Rome. Dio wrote that "the following year Publius Servilius and Lucius Antonius nominally became consuls, but in reality it was Antonius and Fulvia. She, the mother-in‑law of Octavian and wife of Antony, had no respect for Lepidus because of his slothfulness, and managed affairs herself, so that neither the senate nor the people transacted any business contrary to her pleasure."

Shortly afterwards, the triumvirs then distributed the provinces among them. Lepidus took the west and Antony went to Egypt, where he met Cleopatra VII. When Octavian returned to Rome in 41 BC to disperse land to Caesar's veterans, he divorced Fulvia's daughter and accused Fulvia of aiming at supreme power. Fulvia allied with her brother-in-law Lucius Antonius and publicly endorsed Mark Antony in opposition to Octavian.

In 41 BC, tensions between Octavian and Fulvia escalated to war in Italy. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised eight legions in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian, an event known as the Perusine War. Fulvia fled to Greece with her children. Appian writes that she met Antony in Athens, and he was upset with her involvement in the war. Antony then sailed back to Rome to deal with Octavian, and Fulvia died of an unknown illness in exile in Sicyon, near Corinth, Achaea.Blindado

1ag Marcus Junius BrutusTook his own life in 42 BC after being defeated at Philippi by Antony and Octavian

Denarius, issued as moneyer, 54 BC
Head of Liberty, right, LIBERTAS
Consul L. Junius Brutus between lictors, preceded by accensus, BRVTVS

Seaby, Junia 31

Plutarch wrote: Marcus Brutus was descended from that Junius Brutus to whom the ancient Romans erected a statue of brass in the capitol among the images of their kings with a drawn sword in his hand, in remembrance of his courage and resolution in expelling the Tarquins and destroying the monarchy. . . . But this Brutus, whose life we now write, having to the goodness of his disposition added the improvements of learning and the study of philosophy, and having stirred up his natural parts, of themselves grave and gentle, by applying himself to business and public affairs, seems to have been of a temper exactly framed for virtue; insomuch that they who were most his enemies upon account of his conspiracy against Caesar, if in that whole affair there was any honourable or generous part, referred it wholly to Brutus, and laid whatever was barbarous and cruel to the charge of Cassius, Brutus's connection and familiar friend, but not his equal in honesty and pureness of purpose. . . . In Latin, he had by exercise attained a sufficient skill to be able to make public addresses and to plead a cause; but in Greek, he must be noted for affecting the sententious and short Laconic way of speaking in sundry passages of his epistles. . . . And in all other things Brutus was partaker of Caesar's power as much as he desired: for he might, if he had pleased, have been the chief of all his friends, and had authority and command beyond them all, but Cassius and the company he met with him drew him off from Caesar. . . . Caesar snatching hold of the handle of the dagger, and crying out aloud in Latin, "Villain Casca, what do you?" he, calling in Greek to his brother, bade him come and help. And by this time, finding himself struck by a great many hands, and looking around about him to see if he could force his way out, when he saw Brutus with his dagger drawn against him, he let go Casca's hand, that he had hold of and covering his head with his robe, gave up his body to their blows. 2 commentsBlindado

1ak Augustus/ Caius and Lucius CaesarsCaius and Lucius died in 4 and 2 AD, respectively

Denarius
Laureate head, right, CAESAR AVGVSTVS DIVI F PATER PATRIAE
Gaius and Lucius Caesars, C L CAESARES AVGVSTI F COS DESIG

According to Suetonius, "Gaius and Lucius [Augustus] adopted into his House (in 17BC), ‘buying’ them from Agrippa by means of a token sale, initiating them in public affairs while they were young, and granting them command in the provinces while still only consuls-elect."

RIC 207Blindado

1at Galba68-69

Denarius

Laureate head, right, SER GALBA IMP CAESAR AVG P M TR P
Victory standing on globe, VICTORIA PR

RIC 111

Suetonius recorded: Servius Galba, the future emperor was born on the 24th of December, 3BC, in the consulship of Marcus Valerius Messala and Gnaeus Lentulus, at a hillside mansion near Terracina, on the left of the road to Fundi (Fondi). He was formally adopted by his stepmother Livia Ocellina, and took the name Livius and the surname Ocella, also changing his forename to Lucius, until he became Emperor.

It is common knowledge that when calling on Augustus to pay his respects, with other boys of his age, the Emperor pinched his cheek, and said in Greek: ‘You too will have a taste of power, my child.’ And when Tiberius heard the prophecy that Galba would be emperor in old age, he commented: ‘Well let him be, it’s no concern of mine.’

Galba achieved office before the usual age and as praetor (in 20AD), controlling the games at the Floralia, he was the first to introduce a display of tightrope-walking elephants. He next governed Aquitania, for almost a year, and not long afterwards held the consulship for six months (in 33AD). When Caligula was assassinated (in 41AD), Galba chose neutrality though many urged him to seize the opportunity for power. Claudius expressed his gratitude by including him among his intimate friends, and Galba was shown such consideration that the expedition to Britain was delayed to allow him to recover from a sudden but minor indisposition. Later he was proconsul in Africa for two years (44/45AD), being singled out, and so avoiding the usual lottery, to restore order in the province, which was riven by internecine rivalry and an indigenous revolt. He re-established peace, by the exercise of ruthless discipline, and the display of justice even in the most trifling matters. . . .

But when word from the City arrived that Nero was dead and that the people had sworn allegiance to him, he set aside the title of governor and assumed that of Caesar. He then began his march to Rome in a general’s cloak, with a dagger, hanging from his neck, at his chest, and did not resume the toga until his main rivals had been eliminated, namely the commander of the Praetorian Guard in Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, and the commanders in Germany and Africa, Fonteius Capito and Clodius Macer. . . . His prestige and popularity were greater while winning power than wielding it, though he showed evidence of being a more than capable ruler, loved less, unfortunately, for his good qualities than he was hated for his bad ones.

He was even warned of the danger of imminent assassination, the day before his death, by a soothsayer, as he offered the morning sacrifice. Shortly afterwards he learnt that Otho had secured the Guards camp, and when his staff advised him to carry the day by his presence and prestige, by going there immediately, he opted instead to stay put, but gather a strong bodyguard of legionaries from their billets around the City. He did however don a linen corselet, though saying that frankly it would serve little against so many weapons. False reports, put about by the conspirators to lure him into appearing in public, deceived a few of his close supporters, who rashly told him the rebellion was over, the plotters overthrown, and that the rest of the troops were on their way to congratulate him and carry out his orders. So he went to meet them, with such confidence, that when a soldier boasted of killing Otho, he snapped out: ‘On whose authority?’ before hastening on to the Forum. The cavalrymen who had been ordered to find and kill him, who were spurring through the streets scattering the crowds of civilians, now caught sight of him in the distance and halted an instant before galloping towards him and cutting him down, while his staff ran for their lives.Blindado

1bj Marcus Aurelius161-180

Sestertius

Laureate head, right, IMP CAES M AVREL ANTONINVS AVG PM
Salus stg, SALVTI AVGVSTOR TR P XVII COS III SC

RIC 843

The Historia Augusta relates: He was reared under the eye of Hadrian, who called him Verissimus. . . . And so he was adopted in his eighteenth year, and at the instance of Hadrian exception was made for his age and he was appointed quaestor for the year of the second consulship of Antoninus [Pius], now his father. . . . After Hadrian's death, Pius immediately got his wife to ask Marcus if he would break off his betrothal to the daughter of Lucius Commodus and marry their own daughter Faustina (whom Hadrian had wanted to marry Commodus' son, even though he was badly matched in age). After thinking the matter over, Marcus replied he was willing. And when this was done, Pius designated him as his colleague in the consulship, though he was still only quaestor, gave him the title of Caesar. . . .

When Antoninus Pius saw that the end of his life was drawing near, having summoned his friends and prefects, he commended Marcus to them all and formally named him as his successor in the empire. . . . Being forced by the senate to assume the government of the state after the death of the Deified Pius, Marcus made his brother his colleague in the empire, giving him the name Lucius Aurelius Verus Commodus and bestowing on him the titles Caesar and Augustus.

Eutropius summarizes: They carried on a war against the Parthians, who then rebelled for the first time since their subjugation by Trajan. Verus Antoninus went out to conduct that war, and, remaining at Antioch and about Armenia, effected many important achievements by the agency of his generals; he took Seleucia, the most eminent city of Assyria, with forty thousand prisoners; he brought off materials for a triumph over the Parthians, and celebrated it in conjunction with his brother, who was also his father-in-law. He died in Venetia. . . . After him MARCUS ANTONINUS held the government alone, a man whom any one may more easily admire than sufficiently commend. He was, from his earliest years, of a most tranquil disposition; so that even in his infancy he changed countenance neither for joy nor for sorrow. He was devoted to the Stoic philosophy, and was himself a philosopher, not only in his way of life, but in learning. . . .

Under his rule affairs were successfully conducted against the Germans. He himself carried on one war with the Marcomanni, but this was greater than any in the memory of man,so that it is compared to the Punic wars. . . . Having persevered, therefore, with the greatest labour and patience, for three whole years at Carnuntum,14 he brought the Marcomannic war to an end; a war which the Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Suevi, and all the barbarians in that quarter, had joined with the Marcomanni in raising; he killed several thousand men, and, having delivered the Pannonians from slavery, triumphed a second time at Rome with his son Commodus Antoninus, whom he had previously made Caesar. . . . Having, then, rendered the state happy, both by his excellent management and gentleness of disposition, he died in the eighteenth year of his reign and the sixty-first of his life, and was enrolled among the gods, all unanimously voting that such honour should be paid him. 3 commentsBlindado

1bm LucillaWife of Lucius Verus, executed 182 AD

Sestertius
Draped bust, right, LVCILLAE AVG ANTONINI AVG F
Venus standing facing left holding apple, drawing out robe, VENUS

RIC 1767

Daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina Junior, she married Lucius Verus in 164.

According to Herodian: For the present, however, the memory of his father and his respect for his advisers held Commodus in check. But then a disastrous stroke of ill fortune completely altered his previously mild, moderate disposition. It happened this way. The oldest of the emperor's sisters was Lucilla. She had formerly been married to Lucius Verus Caesar. . . . But after Lucius died, Lucilla, who retained all the privileges of her imperial position, was married by her father to Pompeianus.

Commodus, too, allowed his sister to retain the imperial honors; she continued to occupy the imperial seat at the theaters, and the sacred fire was carried before her. But when Commodus married Crispina, custom demanded that the front seat at the theater be assigned to the empress. Lucilla found this difficult to endure, and felt that any honor paid to the empress was an insult to her; but since she was well aware that her husband Pompeianus was devoted to Commodus, she told him nothing about her plans to seize control of the empire. Instead, she tested the sentiments of a wealthy young nobleman, Quadratus, with whom she was rumored to be sleeping in secret. Complaining constantly about this matter of imperial precedence, she soon persuaded the young man to set in motion a plot which brought destruction upon himself and the entire senate.

Quadratus, in selecting confederates among the prominent senators, prevailed upon Quintianus, a bold and reckless young senator, to conceal a dagger beneath his robe and, watching for a suitable time and place, to stab Commodus; as for the rest, he assured Quintianus that he would set matters straight by bribes.

But the assassin, standing in the entrance to the amphitheater (it was dark there and he hoped to escape detection), drew his dagger and shouted at Commodus that he had been sent by the Senate to kill him. Quintianus wasted time making his little speech and waving his dagger; as a result, he was seized by the emperor's bodyguards before he could strike, and died for his stupidity in revealing the plot prematurely.

This was the initial reason for the young emperor's hatred of the Senate. He took Quintianus' words to heart and, ever mindful of what his attacker had said, now considered the entire Senate his collective enemy.

This incident also gave Perennis sufficient excuse for taking action, for he was always advising the emperor to eliminate and destroy the prominent men. By confiscating their property, Perennis easily made himself the richest man of his time. After the attempt at assassination had been thoroughly investigated by the prefect, Commodus without mercy put to death his sister, all those actually involved in the plot, and any who were under the slightest suspicion as well.3 commentsBlindado

1bu Caracalla198-217

Denarius

Laureate head, right, ANTONINVS PIVS AVG BRIT
Mars, MARTI PROPVGNATORI

RIC 223

The Historia Augusta, in the life of Severus, records: As he was advancing against Albinus, moreover, and had reached Viminacium 4 on his march, he gave his elder son Bassianus the name Aurelius Antoninus 5 and the title of Caesar, in order to destroy whatever hopes of succeeding to the throne his brother Geta had conceived. His reason for giving his son the name Antoninus was that he had dreamed that an Antoninus would succeed him. It was because of this dream, some believe, that Geta also was called Antoninus, in order that he too might succeed to the throne. . . . [After defeating Niger], he bestowed the. toga virilis on his younger son, Geta, and he united his elder son in marriage with Plautianus' daughter [Plautilla]. . . . Soon thereafter he appointed his sons to the consulship ; also he greatly honored his brother Geta. . . . Severus [in 198] invaded Parthia, defeated the king, and came to Ctesiphon; and about the beginning of the winter season he took the city. For this feat, likewise, the soldiers declared his son, Bassianus Antoninus, co-emperor; he had already been named Caesar and was now in his thirteenth year. And to Geta, his younger son, they gave the name Caesar. . . .

In the life of Caracalla, the history continues: He himself in his boyhood was winsome and clever, respectful to his parents and courteous to his parents' friends, beloved by the people, popular with the senate, and well able to further his own interests in winning affection. Never did he seem backward in letters or slow in deeds of kindness, never niggardly in largess or tardy in forgiving at least while under his parents. . . . All this, however, was in his boyhood. For when
he passed beyond the age of a boy, either by his father's advice or through a natural cunning, or because he thought that he must imitate Alexander of Macedonia,he became more reserved and stern and even somewhat savage in expression. . . .

After his father's death he went to the Praetorian Camp and complained there to the soldiers that his brother was forming a conspiracy against him. And so he had his brother slain in the Palace. . . . After this he committed many further murders in the city, causing many persons far and wide to be seized by soldier sand killed, as though he were punishing a rebellion. . . . After doing all this he set out for Gaul and immediately upon his arrival there killed the proconsul of Narbonensis. . . . Then he made ready for a journey to the Orient, but interrupted his march and stopped in Dacia. . . . Then he journeyed through Thrace accompanied by the prefect of the guard. . . . After this, turning to the war with the Armenians and Parthians, he appointed as military commander a man whose character resembled his own. . . . Then he betook himself to Alexandria. . . . [H]e issued an order to his soldiers to slay their hosts and thus caused great slaughter at Alexandria. . . . Next he advanced through the lands of the Cadusii and the Babylonians and waged a guerilla-warfare with the Parthian satraps, in which wild beasts were even let loose against the enemy. He then sent a letter to the senate as though he had won a real victory and thereupon was given the name Parthicus. . . .

After this he wintered at Edessa with the intention of renewing the war against the Parthians. During this time, on the eighth day before the Ides of April, the feast of the Megalensia and his own birthday, while on a journey to Carrhae to do honor to the god Lunus, he stepped aside to satisfy the needs of nature and was thereupon assassinated by the treachery of Macrinus the prefect of the guard, who after his death seized the imperial power.1 commentsBlindado

1bz Elagabalus_2218-222

Denarius

Laureate, horned & draped bust rightt, IMP ANTONINVS PIVS AVG
Elagabalus standing left, sacrificing from patera over lit tripod altar, holding branch, star in field left, SVMMVS SACERDOS AVG

RIC 146

The Historia Augusta, in the life of Caracalla, notes: Bassianus lived for forty-three years and ruled for six. . . . He left a son, who afterward received, like his father, the name Antoninus Marcus Antoninus Elagabalus; for such a hold had the name of the Antonines that it could not be removed from the thoughts of the people, because it had taken root in the hearts of all, even as had the name of Augustus.

In the life of Macrinus is recorded: Now there was a certain woman of the city of Emesa, called [Julia] Maesa or Varia; she was the sister of Julia, the wife of [Septimius] Severus Pertinax the African, and after the death of Antoninus Bassianus she had been expelled from her home in the palace through the arrogance of Macrinus. . . . This woman had two daughters, [Julia Soaemias] and [Julia] Mamaea, the elder of whom was the mother of Elagabalus; he assumed the names Bassianus and Antoninus, for the Phoenicians give the name Elagabalus to the Sun. Elagabalus, moreover, was notable for his beauty and stature and for the priesthood which he held, and he was well known to all who frequented the temple, and particularly to the soldiers. To these, Maesa, or Varia as she was also called, declared that this Bassianus was the son of Antoninus, and this was gradually made known to all the soldiers. Maesa herself, furthermore, was very rich (whence also Elagabalus was most wasteful of money), and through her promises to the soldiers the legions were persuaded to desert Macrinus. . . .

Finally, when he received the imperial power, he took the name Antoninus and was the last of the Antonines to rule the Roman Empire. . . . He was wholly under the control of his mother [Soaemias], so much so, in fact, that he did no public business without her consent, although she lived like a harlot and practised all manner of lewdness in the palace. For that matter, her amour with Antoninus Caracalla was so notorious that Varius, or rather Elagabalus, was commonly supposed to be his son. . . . In short, when Elagabalus' message was read in the senate, at once good wishes were uttered for Antoninus and curses on Macrinus and his son, and, in accordance with the general wish and the eager belief of all in his paternity, Antoninus was hailed as emperor. . . .

After he had spent the winter in Nicomedia, [218-219] living in a depraved manner and indulging in unnatural vice with men, the soldiers soon began to regret that they had conspired against Macrinus to make this man emperor, and they turned their thoughts toward his cousin Alexander, who on the murder of Macrinus had been hailed by the senate as Caesar. . . . Among the base actions of his life of depravity he gave orders that Alexander, whom he had formally adopted, be removed from his presence, saying that he regretted the adoption. Then he commanded the senate to take away from Alexander the name of Caesar. But when this was announced to the senate, there was a profound silence. For Alexander was an excellent youth, as was afterwards shown by the character of his rule, even though, because he was chaste, he was displeasing to his adoptive father he was also, as some declare, his cousin. Besides, he was loved by the soldiers and acceptable to the senate and the equestrian order. Yet the Emperor's madness went the length of an attempt to carry out the basest design; for he despatched assassins to kill Alexander. . . . The soldiers, however, and particularly the members of the guard, either because they knew what evils were in store for Elagabalus, or because they foresaw his hatred for themselves, formed a conspiracy to set the state free. First they attacked the accomplices in his plan of murdering Alexander. . . . Next they fell upon Elagabalus himself and slew him in a latrine in which he had taken refuge.Blindado

1cq Trajan Decius249-251

Sestertius

Laureate, cuirassed bust, right, MP C M Q TRAIANVS DECIVS AVG
Dacia standing left holding draco standard, or staff surmounted by a donkey's head, DACIA SC

RIC 101b

The Byzantine historian Zosimus recorded in his New History: [Philip], thinking that he had by these means established himself in the possession of the empire, he made an expedition against the Carpi, who had plundered all the country about the Ister. . . . As there were at that time many disturbances in the empire, the eastern provinces, which were uneasy, partly, owing to the exactions of exorbitant tributes, and partly to their dislike of Priscus, their governor, who was a man of an intolerably evil disposition, wished for innovation, and set up Papianus for emperor, while the inhabitants of Moesia and Pannonia were more inclined to Marinus.

Philip, being disturbed by these events, desired the senate cither to assist him against such imminent dangers, or, if they were displeased with his government, to suffer him to lay it down and dismiss him quietly. No person making a reply to this, Decius, a person of illustrious birth and rank, and moreover gifted, with every virtue, observed, that he was unwise in being so much concerned at those events, for they would vanish of themselves, and could not possibly long subsist. And though the event corresponded with the conjecture of Decius, which long experience in the world had enabled him to make, Papianus and Marinus being taken off, yet Philip was still in fear, knowing how obnoxious the officers in that country were to the army. He therefore desired Decius to assume the command of the legions in Moesia and Pannonia. As he refused this under the plea that it was inconvenient both for Philip and himself, Philip made use of the rhetoric of necessity, as the Thessalians term it, and compelled him to go to Pannonia to punish the accomplices of Marinus. The army in that country, finding that Decius punished all that had offended, thought it most politic to avoid the present danger and to set up a sovereign who would better consult the good of the state, and who, being more expert both in civil and military affairs, might without difficulty conquer Philip.

For this purpose they clothed Decius in purple, and notwithstanding all his apprehensions of future mischances, compelled him to assume the supreme authority. Philip therefore, on hearing that Decius was thus made emperor, collected all his forces to overpower him. The supporters of Decius, though they knew that the enemy had greatly the advantage in numbers, still retained their confidence, trusting to the general skill and prudence of Decius in affairs. And when the two armies engaged, although the one was superior in number, yet the other so excelled it in discipline and conduct, that a great number of Philip's partisans were slain and he himself amongst them, together with his son, on whom he had conferred the title of Caesar. Decius thus acquired the empire.

The Scythians, taking advantage of the disorder which every where prevailed through the negligence of Philip, crossed the Tanais, and pillaged the countries in the vicinity of Thrace. But Decius, marching against them, was not only victorious in every battle, but recovered the spoils they had taken, and endeavoured to cut off their retreat to their own country, intending to destroy them all, to prevent their ever again, making a similar incursion. For this purpose he posted Gallus on the bank of the Tanais with a competent force, and led in person the remainder of his army against the enemy. This expedition exceeded to his utmost wish; but Gallus, who was disposed to innovation, sent agents to the Barbarians, requesting their concurrence in a conspiracy against Decius. To this they gave a willing assent, and Gallus retained his post on the bank of the Tanais, but the Barbarians divided themselves into three battalions, the first of which posted itself behind a marsh. Decius having destroyed a considerable number of the first battalion, the second advanced, which he likewise defeated, and discovered part of the third, which lay near the marsh. Gallus sent intelligence to him, that he might march against them across the fen. Proceeding therefore incautiously in an unknown place, he and his army became entangled in the mire, and under that disadvantage were so assailed by the missiles of the Barbarians, that not one of them escaped with life. Thus ended the life of the excellent emperor Decius.

Eutropius wrote: DECIUS, a native of Lower Pannonia, born at Budalia, assumed the government. . . . When he and his son had reigned two years, they were both killed in the country of the Barbarians, and enrolled among the gods. Blindado

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