.Smith. - DICTIONARY OP GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. DICTIONARY (JREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY EDITED 15 V WILLIAM SMITH, LLD, i:nrn>i; or THE '' mrriov.ujv OK CIIKKK AXD noxr.vv BIOOI:APTIY AND \r^TIroT,n(^Y, IX TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. ABACAENUM HYTANIS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. ^ t 35 i BOSTON: I LITTLE, B R W N, A N D C O M T A N Y. 1870. 25" LIST OP WEITEES IN VOL, I. INITIALS. NAMES. E. H. B. EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, M. A. Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. W. B. D. WILLIAM BODHAM DONNE. J. S. H. J. S. HOWSON, M. A. Principal of the Collegiate Institution, Liverpool. E. B. J. EDWARD BOUCHER JAMES, M. A. Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. R. G. L. ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M. A. Late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. G. L. .GEORGE LONG, M. A. Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. W. R. WILLIAM RAMSAY, M. A. Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow. L. S. LEONHARD SCHMITZ, PH. D., LL. D., F. R. S. E. Rector of the High School of Edinburgh. P. S. PHILIP SMITH, B. A. Head Master of Mill Hill School. V. W. S. W. VAUX, M. A. Of the British Museum. G. W. GEORGE WILLIAMS, B. D. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. H. W. HENRY WALFORD, M. A. Of Wadliam College, Oxford. The Articles which have no initials attached to them arc written by the Editor. PREFACE, THE present work completes the Series of Classical Dictionaries, and forms, with the Dictionaries of " Greek and Roman Antiquities " and "Greek and Roman Biography" already published, an Encyclopaedia of Classical Antiquity. The Dictionary of Geography, like the other two works, is designed mainly to illustrate the Greek and Roman writers, and to enable a diligent student to read them in the most profitable manner ; but it has been thought advisable to include the geographical names which occur in the Sacred Scriptures, and thus to make the work a Dictionary of Ancient Geography in the widest acceptation of the term. The name ' Greek and Roman " has however been retained, partly for the sake of uniformity, but chiefly to indicate the principal object of the work. Our knowledge of ancient Geography has been much enlarged within the last few years by the researches of modern travellers, many of whom have united an accurate knowledge of the ancient writers with great powers of observation and accuracy of description. There are few countries of the ancient world which nave not been explored and described by our own countrymen ; but a knowledge of the results thus obtained is confined to a few, and has not yet been made available for the purposes of instruction. Hitherto there has not existed, either in the English or in the German language, any work sufficiently comprehensive and accurate to satisfy the demands of modern scholarship. The German works upon this subject are unusually scanty. In English, the only systematic works worthy of mention are the well-known treatises of Cramer upon Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, which however have now become obsolete. Since the publication of his " Greece," for instance, we have had the incomparable travels of Colonel Leake, the results of the discoveries of the French Com- mission in the Peloponnesus, and the works of Ross, Ulrichs, Curtius, and other learned German travellers. No apology is therefore necessary for the publication of a new work upon Ancient Geography, which is in many respects more needed by the student than the two former Dictionaries. This work is an historical as well as a geographical one. An account is given of the political history both of countries and cities under their re- spective names ; and an attempt is made to trace, as far as possible, the history of the more important buildings of the cities, and to give an ac- count of their present condition, wherever they still exist. The history is, for the most part, brought down to the fall of the Western Empire in the year 476 of our era : but it was impossible to observe any general rule upon Tiii PREFACE. this point ; and it has sometimes been necessary to trace the history of a town through the middle ages, in order to explain the existing remains of antiquity. Separate articles are given to the geographical names which occur in the chief classical authors, as well as to those which are found in the Geogra- phers and Itineraries, wherever the latter are of importance in consequence of their connection with more celebrated names, or of their representing modern towns, or from other causes. But it has been considered worse than useless to load the work with a barren list of names, many of them corrupt, and of which absolutely nothing is known. The reader, however, is not to conclude that a name is altogether omitted till he has consulted the Index ; since in some cases an account is given, under other articles, of names which did not deserve a separate notice. The Illustrations consist of plans of cities, districts, and battles, repre- sentations of public buildings and other ancient works, and coins of the more important places. The second volume of the work will be followed by an Atlas of Ancient Geography, which will be on a sufficiently large scale to be of service to the more advanced student. WILLIAM SMITH. LONDON, December, 1853. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE FIRST VOLUME. Coin of Abacaenum Coin of Abdera - Coin of Abydus Coin of Acanthus - Coin of Acarnania - Coin of Achaia - Coin of Acinipo - Coin of Acmonia - Plan of Actium - Coin of Adranum - Coin of Adria - Ruins of the temple of Aegina Front elevation of the temple of Aegina re- stored - Coins of Aegina - Coin of Aegium - Coin of Aegospotami - Coin of Aeneia - CoinofAenus - - - - Coin of Aesernia - Coin of Aetna - Coin of Aetolia - Plan of Agrigentum Coin of Agrigentum - Coin of Agyrium Coin of Alaesa - Plan of Alba Fucensis -. Plan of Alexandreia - Coin of Allaria - Coin of Aluntium - Coin of Alyzia - Map of the gulf of Issus, and of the sur- rounding country - Coin of Amastris Plan of Ambracia Coin of Ambracia Coin of Amisus - Plan of the neighbourhood of Amphipolis - Coin of Amphipolis Coin of Anactorium Coin of Ancona - Coin of Ancyra ~ Coin of Andros - Plan of Antioch - Genius of Antioch Coin of Antioch - Coin of Apameia in Phrygia Page 1 2 7 9 10 17 20 21 23 25 27 34 34 35 35 36 50 50 55 61 67 78 80 81 82 87 96 104 113 113 115 118 120 121 123 126 127 129 133 134 136 144 14G 146 153 Page Coin of Aphrodisias in Caria - - 157 Coin of Apollonia in Illvriu - 160 CoinofAptera - .163 Coin of Aquinum - 172 Coin of Aradus - - - 186 Coins of Arcadia - 193 Ruins of a Pyramid in the A rgcia - - 202 Plan of Argos - - 205 Site of the Heraeum - - 206 Coin of Argos - - 207 Map of the coast of Amphilochia - - 208 Coin of Argos Amphilochicum - - 208 CoinofArpi - - 221 Gate of Arpinum - - 222 Coin of Aspendus - - 242 Coin of Assorus - - 243 Coin of Assus - - 244 Environs of Athens - 256 The Acropolis restored - - 265 Ground plan of the Acropolis and the imme- diate neighbourhood - - 267 Ground plan of the Propylaea - - 268 The Propylaea restored - - 269 Temple of Nike Apteros - 270 The Parthenon restored - - 271 Ground plan of the Parthenon - - 273 The Erechtheium restored, viewed from the NW. angle - - 277 Ground plan of the Erechtheium - - 278 The salt well of the Erechtheium - - 280 Plan of the Pnyx - - 282 The Bema of the Pnyx - - 283 Monument of Philopappus - 284 Monument of Thrasyllus - - 285 Theatre of Dionysus, from coin - - 285 Theatre of Dionysus, from a vnse - - 285' Coin showing the Cave of Pan, the Parthe- non, and Athena Promachus - 286 Ground plan of the Theseium - - 288 The Theseium - - 289 Ruins of the Olympieium - - 290 The Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes - 291 Choragic monument of Lysicrates - 291 Street of the Tripods, from a bas-relief - 292 Arch of Hadrian - - - . 293 Portico of Athena Archegetis - - 295 Ionic temple of the Ilissiis - - 298 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Plan of the Port-Towns - Coins of Athens Coin of Avenio - Coins of Axus - Ruins at Azani - Coin of Azani - Coin of Azetium Mons Bagistanus Sculptures of Mons Bagistanus Coin of Barca - Coin of Barium - Coin of Beneventum Coin of Beroea in Syria - Coin of Berytus - Coin of the Bisaltae Coin of Bizya - Map of the hasin of the Copais Coin of Boeotia - Plan of Brundusium Coin of Brnndusium Coin of Bruttii - Coin of Cabellio - Coin of Caelia - Coin of Caena - Plan of Caere - Coin of Caesareia Mazaca Coin of Calacte - Coin of Gales Coin of Camarina Plan of Cannae - Coin of Capua - Coin of Cardia - Coin of Carmo - Map of Carpathus Coin of Carteia - Map of Zeugitana Coins of Carthage Plan of Carthage, according to Mannert Plan of Carthage, according to Ritter Coin of Carystus in Euboea Coin of Cassope - Coin of Catana - Coin of Caulonia - Coin of Celenderis Coin of Centuripa Coin of Carthaea in Ceos - Coin of Cephaloedium Coin of Chalcedon Coin of Chalcidice in Macedonia - Coin of Chalcis in Euboea Coin of Chersonesus in Crete Coin of Chios ... Coin of Cibyra - Coin of Cissa Coin of Cius Coin of Clazomenae Coin of Cleonae - Harbour and ruins of Cnidus Coin of Cnidus - Coin of Cnosus - Coin of Colophon Coin of Comana in Pontus Coin of Byzantium Plan of Constantinople - Coin of Corcyra - Plan of Corinth - Colonial coin of Corinth - Harbour of Cenchreae Plan of the Isthmian sanctuary - Page 305 308 350 353 353 354 354 370 370 378 380 391 394 395 403 407 411 416 446 446 451 462 465 465 468 469 475 480 487 501 513 516 521 524 527 532 548 549 552 556 560 568 575 580 586 587 589 597 598 600 607 611 616 628 629 632 634 638 640 640 648 650 659 662 671 679 682 682 683 Page Coin of Corinth - - - 686 Coin of Coroneia - - - 688 Coin of Corycus in Cilicia - - 694 Coin of Cos - - 695 Coin of Cossura - 697 Coin of Cragus - - - - 698 Coin of Cranii - - - 699 Coin of Cromna - - 709 Coins of Croton - - 713 CoinofCumae - - - 718 Coin of Cydonia - - - 723 Coin of Cyme - - - 725 Coin of Cyparissia ... 728 Coins of Gyrene .... 736 Coiu of Cythnus - - - 739 Coin of Cyzicus - - 742 Remains of Trajan's Bridge - 744 Coin of Damascus - - 749 Coin of Damastium - - 749 Coin of Delos - 760 Map of Delphi - - - 763 Coin of Delphi - - - 769 Coin of Demetrias - - 769 Map of the environs of Digentia - - 775 Coin of Dionysopolis in Phrygia - - 777 CoinofDocimia - - - 781 Coin of Dyrrhachium - - 796 Coin of the Eburones - - 799 Coin of Edessa in Mesopotamia - - 807 CoinofElaea - - 809 Plan of Eleusis - - - 813 Coin of Eleusis - - - 814 Coin of Eleutherna - 815 Coins of Elis - - - 821 CoinofElyrus - - - - 823 Coin of Emesa - - 824 Coin of Emporiae - - 826 CoinofEnna - - - 829 Com of Entella - - - - 829 Coin of Epeirus - 833 Plan of Ephesus - - - 838 Coin of Ephesus - - 839 Coin of Epidaums ... 842 Coin of Epiphaneia in Syria - - 843 Plan of Mount Ercta ... 845 View of Mount Ercta - - 846 Coin of Eretria in Euboea - - 847 Coin of Erythrae - - 852 CoinofEryx - - - - 854 Coin of Euboea .... 873 Coin of Eucarpia - - 873 Coin of Eumeneia - - 874 Coin of Gabala .... 920 CoinofGades - - - - 924 Coin of Galatia - - - - 932 CoinofGaulos - - - - 979 Coin of Gaza - - - - 981 CoinofGela - - - - 986 Panoramic view of the Gergovian hills - 990 Plan of the Mountain of Gergovia and its environs - - - - 991 Coin of Germa in Mysia - 992 Coin of Gomphi - - 1004 Coin of Gortyna .... 1006 Coin assigned to Graviscae - - 1019 CoinofGyrton - - - 1021 Coin of Gythinm - - - 1022 Coin of Hadrianopolis - 1023 Boudroum, or Halicarnassus - - 1027 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Coin of Ilclmiintica - - 1039 Map showing the position of Caesar's munis on the Rhone - - 1042 Coin of Heracleift in Macedonia - - 1046 Coin of Heracleia in Lucania - 1048 Coin of Herucleia in Bithynia - - 1050 Coin of Iloraoa - - - 1051 Coin of Hierapolis in Phrygia - 1064 Coin of Hierapolis in Cilicia - 1064 Coin of Hierapytna Coin of Himera - Coin of Hipponium Coin ascribed to Hispania Coin of Hybla Major Coin of Hyrcani-i in Lydia Coin of Hyria in Campania Coin of Hyrtacina XI Page 1065 1068 1071 1089 1099 1106 1107 1107 A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY ABACAENUM. ABACAENUM ("AaKaivov, DM., Steph Byz.: ASaKaiva, Ptol. : Eth. 'AaKaiv7vos : nr. 7Wpz,Ru.), a city of Sicily, situated about 4 miles from the N. coast, between Tyndarfs and Mylae, and 8 from the former city. It was a city of the Siculi, and does not appear to have ever received a Greek colony, though it partook largely of the influence of Greek art and civilisation. Its territory originally included that of Tyndaris, which was separated from it by the elder Dionysius when he founded that city in B. c. 396 (Diod. adv. 78). From the way in which it is mentioned in the wars of Dionysius, Agathocles, and Ilieron (Diod. xiv. 90, xix. 65, 110, xxii. Exc. Hoeschel. p. 499), it is clear that it was a place of power and importance : but from the tune of Hieron it disappears from history, and no mention is found of it in the Verrine orations of Cicero. Its name is, however, found in Ptolemy (iii. 4. 12), so that it appears to have still continued to exist in his day. Its decline was probably owing to the increasing prosperity of the neighbouring city of Tyndaris. There can be little doubt that the ruins visible in the time of Fazello, at the foot of the hill on which the modem town of Tripi is situated, were those of Abacaenum. He speaks of fragments of masonry, prostrate columns, and the vestiges of walls, indi- cating the site of a large city, but which had been destroyed to its foundations. The locality does not seem to have been examined by any more recent traveller. (Fazellus, de Reb. Sic. ix. 7; Cluver. Sicil. Ant. p. 386.) There are found coins of Abacaenum, both in salver and copper. The boar and acorn, which are the common type of the former, evidently refer to the great forests of oak which still cover the neigh- bouring mountains, and afford pasture to large herds of swine. [E.H.B.] COIN OF ABACAEXUM. ABAE ("Aftu; Eth. 'Af the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hyperm- iii'stra, and grandson of Danans. Near the town tnd on the road towards llyunipolis was an ancient ABALUS. temple and oracle of Apollo, who hence derived the surname of Abacus. So celebrated was this oracle, that it was consulted both by Croesus and by Mar- donius. Before the Persian invasion the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offer- ings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in then: march through Phocis (B. c. 480), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian war (B. c. 346). Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaci, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still ex- isted in the town in the time of Pausanias. Ac- cording to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae emigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inha- bitants the name of Abantes. The ruins of Abae are on a peaked hill to the W. of ExarTcho. There are now no remains on the summit of the peak ; but the walls and some of the gates may still be traced on the SW. side. There are also remains of the walls, which formed the inclosure of the temple. (Paus. x. 35; Herod, i. 46, viii. 134, 33; Diod. xvi. 530; Strab. pp. 423, 445; Steph. Byz. s. v.; Gell, Itinerary, p. 226; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 163, seq.) ABA'LLABA, a Roman castle in Britannia In- ferior, whose site is unknown. It is mentioned in the Notitia Imperil as the quarters of a troop of Numidian horse (Mauri Aureliani) in the 3rd cen- tury A. D. Antiquaries refer it to Appleby on the Eden, and its name, containing the Celtic word Avon, water, indicates its Bosition near a stream. Watchcross in Cumberland also claims to be the ancient Aballaba. It was certainly, however, one of the forts upon the rampart erected by Hadrian in A. D. 120, between the rivers Esk and Tyne, to protect the province of Britain from the incursions of the Cakdonians. [W. B. D.] ABALUS, was said by Pytheas to be an island in the northern ocean, upon which amber was washed by the waves, distant a day's sail from the aestnary called Mentonomon, on which the Gothones dwelt. This island was called Basilia by Timaeus, and Baltia by Xenophon of Lampsacus. It was probably a portion of the Prussian coast upon the Baltic. (Plin. xxxvii. 7. s. 11 ; Diod. v. 23 ; Ukert, Geographic, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 33, seq.) 2 ABANTEb. ABANTES, ABANTIS. [EUBOEA.J ABA'NTIA. [AMANTIA.] A'BARIS, the fortified camp of the Hyksos dur- ing their occupation of Egypt. For details see AEGYPTUS. ABAS ("Agcts), a river of Iberia in Asia, men- tioned by Plutarch (Pomp. 35) and Dion Cassius (xxxvii. 3) as crossed by Pompey, on his expedition into the Caucasian regions. Its course was E. of the Cambyses; and it seems to be the same as the Alazonius or Alazon of Strabo and Pliny (Alasan, Alacks) which fell into the Cambyses just above its confluence with the Cyrus. [P. S.] ABASCI, ABASGI ('Afturicof, 'A&xryof), a Scythian people in the N. of Colchis, on the confines of Sarmatia Asiatica (within which they are some- times included), on the Abascus or Abasgus, one of the small rivers flowing from the Caucasus into the NE. part of the Euxine. They carried on a con- siderable slave-trade, especially in beautiful boys, whom they sold to Constantinople for eunuchs. These practices were suspended for a time, on their nominal conversion to Christianity, during the reign of Justinian ; but the slave-trade in these regions was at least as old as the time of Herodotus (iii. 97), and has continued to the present time. (Arrian. Peripl. Pont. Eux. p. 12; Procop. B. Goth. iv. 3, B. Pers. ii. 29 ; Steph. B. 8. v. ~2a.vviyai.) [P.S.] ABASCUS, ABASGUS. [ABASCI.] A'BATOS, a rocky island in the Nile, near Phi- lae, which the priests alone were permitted to enter. (Senec. Q. N. iv. 2; Lucan, x. 323.) ABBASSUS or AMBASUM (Abbassus, Liv.; "ApSaffov, Steph. B. s. v.: Eth. 'A/iScwriT^s), a town of Phrygia, on the frontiers of the Tolistoboii, in Galatia. (Liv. xxxviii. 15.) It is, perhaps, the same as the ALAMASSUS of Hierocles, and the AMA- DASSE of the Councils. (Hierocles, p. 678, with Wesseling's note.) ABDE'KA. 1. (rb. "ASSripa, also "Aetirjpov or -os ; Abdera, -orum, Liv. xlv. 29; Abdera, -ae, Plin. xxv. 53: Eth. 'AgSrjpmys, Abderites or -ita: Adj. 'ASSypiTiKos, Abderiticus, Abderitanus), a town upon the southern coast of Thrace, at some distance to the E. of the river Nestus. Herodotus, indeed, in one passage (vii. 126), speaks of the river as flowing through Abdera (6 St' 'ASS-fipcav peuv NCCTTOS, butcf. c. 109, Kara "AgSrjpa). According to mythology, it was founded by Heracles in honour of his favourite A.bderus. ^( Strab. p. 331.) His- tory, however, mentions Timesius or Timesias of Clazomenae as its first founder. (Herod, i. 168.) His colony was unsuccessful, and he was driven out by the Thracians. Its date is fixed by Eusebius, B.C. 656. In B.C. 541, the inhabitants of Teos, imable to resist Harpagus, who had been left by Cyrus, after his capture of Sardis, to complete the subjugation of Ionia, and unwilling to submit to him, took ship and sailed to .Thrace, and there re- colonised Abdera. (Herod. I c.; Scymmis Chius, 665; Strab. p. 644.) Fifty years afterwards, when Xerxes invaded Greece, Abdera seems to have be- come a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the ex- pensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. (Herod, vii 120.) On his flight after the battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera, and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and Bcymitar of gold. Thucydides (ii. 97) mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the kingdom of ABELLA. the Odrysae when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. In B. c. 408 Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter. (Diod. xiii. 72.) Diodonis speaks of it as being then in a very flourishing state. The first blow to its prosperity was given in a war in which it was engaged B. c. 376 with the Triballi, who had at this time become one of the most powerful tribes of Thrace. After a partial success, the Abderitae were nearly cut to pieces in a second engagement, but were rescued by Chabrias with an Athenian force. (Diod. xv. 36.) But little mention of Abdera oc- curs after this. Pliny speaks of it as being in his time a free city (iv. 18). In later tunes it seems to have sunk into a place of small repute. It is said in the middle ages to have had the name of Poly- stylus. Dr. Clarke (Travels, vol. iii. p. 422) men- tions his having searched in vain on the east bank of the Nestus for any traces of Abdera, probably from imagining it to have stood close to the river. Abdera was the birthplace of several famous per- sons : among others, of the philosophers Protagoras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus. In spite of this, its inhabitants passed into a proverb for dullness and stupidity. (Juv. x.50; Martial, x. 25. 4; Cic. ad Att. iv. 16, vii. 7.) Mullets from Abdera were considered especial dainties (Athen. p. 118). It was also famous for producing the cuttle-fish (Id. p. 324). [H. W.] COIN OF ABDEBA. 2. (rcL "ASSrjpa, At^pa, Strab. ; "A5opa, PtoL; rb "ASSijpoVj Ephor. ap. Steph. B. : Eth. 'ASrj- P'ITTJS: Adra or, according to some, Almeria), a city of Hispania Baetica, on the S. coast, between Malaca and Carthago Nova, founded by the Cartha- ginians. (Strab. pp. 157, 8; Steph. B. s.v.; Plin. iii. 1. s. 3.) There are coins of the city, some of a very ancient period, with Phoenician characters, and others of the reign of Tiberius, from which the place appears to have been either a colony or a muni- cipium. (Easche,s.v.;Eckhel,vol.i.p.l3.) [P.S.~] ABELLA ('Age'AAa, Strab., Ptol. : Eth. Abellanus, Inscr. ap. Orell. 3316, Avellanus, Plin. : Avetta Vec- chia), a city in the interior of Campania, about 5 miles NE. of Nola. According to Justin (xx. 1), it was a Greek city of Chalcidic origin, which would lead us to suppose that it was a colony of Cumae: but at a later period it had certainly become an Oscan town, as well as the neighbouring city of Nola. No men- tion of it is found in history, though it must have been at one time a place of importance. Strabo and Pliny both notice it among the inland towns of Campania; and though we learn from the Liber de Coloniis, that Vespasian settled a number of his freedmen and dependants there, yet it appears, both from that treatise and from Pliny, that it had not then attained the rank of a colony, a dignity which we find it enjoying in the time of Trajan. It pro- iroi E ABELLINUM. bably became such in the rci^n of tliat emperor. (Stab. p. 249; Plin. iii. 5. 9; Ptol. iii. 1. 68; Lib. Colon, p. 230; Grutcr. Inscr. p. 1096, 1; Zumpt, de Coloniis, p. 400.) We learn from Virgil and Silius Italicus that its territory was not fertile in com, but rich in fruit-trees (maliferae Abcttae): the neighbourhood also abounded in lilberts or ha/.d- nuts of a very choice quality, which were called from thence nuces Avclkmut (Virg. Ann. vii. 740; 1. Ital. viii. 545; Plan. xv. 22; Serv. ad Geary. 65). The modern town of Avella is situated in plain near the foot of the Apennines; but the re- mains of the ancient city, still called Avella Vecchia, occupy a hill of considerable height, forming one of the umlerialls of the mountains, and command an extensive view of the plain beneath; hence Virgil's expression " despectant moenia Abellae." The ruins are described as extensive, including the vestiges of an amphitheatre, a temple, and other edifices, as well as a portion of the ancient walls. (Pratilli, Via Appia, p. 445; Lupuli, Iter Veniain. p. 19; Ro- manelli, vol. iii. p. 597 ; Swinburne, Travels, vol. i. p. 105.) Of the numerous relics of antiquity dis- covered here, the most interesting is a long inscrip- tion in the Oscan language, which records a treaty of alliance between the citizens of Abella and those of Nola. It dates (according to Mommsen) from a period shortly after the Second Punic War, and is not only curious on account of details concerning the municipal magistrates, but is one of the most im- portant auxiliaries we possess for a study of the Oscan language. This curious monument still re- mains in the museum of the Seminary at Nola: it has been repeatedly published, among others by Passeri {Linguae Oscae Specimen Singulare, fol. Eomae, 1774), but in the most complete and satis- factory manner by Lepsius {Inscr. Umbr. et Osc. tab. xxi.) and Mommsen {Die Unter-Italischen Dia- fejfcfe,p. 119). [E.H.B.] ABELLrNTJM('AeeAAw, Eih. Abellinas-atis). 1. A considerable city of the Hirpini, situated in the upper valley of the Sabatus, near the frontier of Campania. Pliny, indeed, appears to have re- garded it as included in that country, as he enu- merates it among the cities of the first region cf Augustus, but Ptolemy is probably correct in reckoning it among those of the Hirpini. It is . placed by the Tabula Peutingeriana on the road from Beneventum to Salernum, at a distance of 16 Roman miles from the former city. No mention of it is found in history prior to the Roman conquest; and it appears to have first risen to be a place of im- portance under the Roman Empire. The period at which it became a colony is uncertain : Pliny calls it only an " oppidum," but it appears from the Liber de Coloniis that it must have received a colony previous to his time, probably as early as the second Triumvirate ; and we learn from various inscriptions of imperial times that it continued to enjoy this rank down to a late period. These mention numerous local magistrates, and prove that it must have been a place of considerable wealth and importance, at least as late as the time of Valentinian. (Plin. iii. 5. s. 9; Ptol. iii, 1. 68; Lib. de Colon, p. 229; Insor. ap. Orell. Nos. 1180, 1181; Lupuli, Iter Ve- nusin. pp. 34, 55, 56.) The ancient city was destroyed during the wars between the Greeks and the Lombards, and the in- habitants established themselves on the site of the modem Avellino, which has thus retained the name, but not the situation, of the ancient Abellinum. The ABII. 3 ruins of the latter arc still visible about two miles from the modern city, near the village of A tripa Idi, and immediately above the river Sabbato. Some ves- tiges of an amphitheatre may be traced, as well as portions of the city walls, and other fragments of reti- culated masonry. Great numbers of inscriptions, bas-reliefe, altars, and minor relics of antiquity, have also been discovered on the site. (Lupuli, I.e. pp. 33, 34 ; Romanelli, voL ii. p. 3 1 ; Swinburne, Travels, vol. i. p. 118; Craven, Abntzzi, vol. ii. p. 201.) The neighbourhood still abounds with filbert-trees, which are extensively cultivated, as they were in ancient times ; on which account the name of the nuces Avellanae was frequently derived from Abelli- num rather than Abella. (Harduin. ltd Plin. xv. 22.) 2. Besides the Abellinum mentioned by Pliny in the first region of Italy, he enumerates also in the second, which included the Hirpini and Apulians, " Abellinates cognomine Protropi," and " Abellinates cognominati Marsi." The first have been generally supposed to be the inhabitants of the city already mentioned, but it would certainly appear that Pliny meant to distinguish them. No clue exists to the position of either of these two towns : the conjecture of the Italian topographers who have placed the Abellinates Marsi at Marsko Fetere, in Lucania, having nothing, except the slight similarity of name, to recommend it, as that site would have been in the third region. [E. H. B.] A'BIA (?) 'Agfa; nr. Zarnata), a town of Mes- senia, on the Messenian gulf, and a little above the woody dell, named Choerius, which formed the boundary between Messenia and Laconia in the time of Pausanias. It is said to have been the same town as the Ira of the Iliad (ix. 292), one of the seven towns which Agamemnon offered to Achilles, and to have derived its later name from Abia, the nurse of Hyllus, the son of Hercules. Subsequently it belonged, with Thuria and Pharae, to the Achaean League. It continued to be a place of some importance down to the reign of Hadrian, as we learn from an extant inscription of that period. (Paus. iv. 30; Polyb. xxv. 1; Paciandi, Monum. Pelopon. ii. pp. 77, 145, cited by Hoffmann, Griech- enland, p. 1020 ; Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 325.) ABIA'NUS ('Ag/Ws), a river of Scythia (Sar- matia) falling into the Euxine, mentioned only in the work of Alexander on the Euxine, as giving name to the ABII, who dwelt on its banks. (Steph. Byz. s. v. "A&oi.) Stephanus elsewhere quotes Alexander as saying that the district of Hylea on the Euxine was called 'Agi/cTf, which he interprets by 'TAofa, woody (Steph. Byz. s. v. 'TAe'a). [P. S.] A'BII (*Aioj), a Scythian people, placed by Ptolemy in the extreme N. of Scythia extra Imaum, near the Hippophagi ; but there were very different opinions about them. Homer (77. xiii. 5, 6) repre- sents Zeus, on the summit of M. Ida, as turning away his eyes from the battle before the Greek camp, and " looking down upon the land of the Thracians familiar with horses," Mvcruv r' cry^e- /ua^wj/, Kal ayaviav l-mnrifj.oX'yuiv, y\a.KTO(f)dyu>v, aSiuv re, SiKatordrtav avdpuiruv. Ancient and modern commentators have doubted greatly which of these words to take as proper names, except the first two, which nearly all agree to refer to the Mysians of Thrace. The fact would seem to be that the poet had heard accounts of the great no- made peoples who inhabited the steppes NW. and N. of the Euxine, whose whole wealth lay in their herds, especially of horses, on the milk of which B 2 4 ABILA. they lived, and who were supposed to preserve the innocence of a state of nature ; and of them^ there- fore, he speaks collectively by epithets suited to such descriptions, and, among the rest, as #toi, poor, with scanty means of life (from a and fitos). The people thus described answer to the later notions respecting the Hyperboreans, whose name does not Occur in Homer. Afterwards, the epithets applied by Homer to this supposed primitive people were taken as proper names, and were assigned to dif- ferent tribes of the Scythians, so that we have mention of the Scythae Agavi, Hippemolgi, Galac- tophagi (and Galactopotae) and Abii. The last are mentioned as a distinct people by Aeschylus, who prefixes a guttural to the name, and describes the Gabii as the most just and hospitable of men, living on the self-sown fruits of the untilled earth ; but we have no indication of where he placed them (Prom. Solut. Fr. 184). Of those commentators, who take the word in Homer for a proper name, some place them in Thrace, some in Scythia, and some near the Amazons, who in vain urged them to take part in an expedition against Asia (Eustath. ad 11. 1. c. p. 9 1 6 ; Steph. Byz. I. c.); in fact, like the correspondent fabulous people, the Hyperborei, they seem to have been moved back, as knowledge advanced, further and further into the unknown regions of the north. In the histories of Alexander's expedition we are told that ambassadors came to him at Maracanda (Samarkand) from the Abii Scythae, a tribe who had been independent since the time of Cyrus, and were renowned for their just and peaceful character (Arrian. Anab. iv. 1; Q. Curt. vii. 6); but the specific name of the tribe of Scythians who sent this embassy is probably only an instance of the attempts made to illustrate the old mythical geography by Alexander's conquests. In these accounts their precise locality is not indicated : Ammianus Mar - cellinus places them N. of Hyrcania (xxiii. 6). An extended discussion will be found in Strabo of the various opinions respecting the Abii up to his time (pp. 296, 303, 311, 553; Droysen, in the Rhein. Mus. vol. ii. p. 92, 1834). [P. S.] A'BILA ("A&Aa: Eth. 'A&A^os). It would appear that there were several towns bearing this appellation in the districts which border upon Pa- lestine. The most important of these was a place of strength jn Code-Syria, now Nebi Abel, situated between HeliopoUs and Damascus, in lat. 3338'N., long. 36 18' E. It was the chief town of the tetrarchy of ABILENE, and is frequently termed, by way of distinction, Abila Lysaniae ("Ai\a eiriKa- Aoi>^e'j/Tj Ava-oo'iou'). [ABILENE.] Belleye has written a dissertation in the Trans- actions of the Academy of Belles Lettres to prove that this Abila is the same with Leucas on the .river Chrysorrhoas, which at one period assumed ihe name of Claudiopolis, as we learn from some corns described by Eckhel. The question is much complicated by the circumstance that medals have been preserved of a town in Coele-Syria called Abila Leucas, which, as can be demonstrated from the pieces themselves, must have been different from Abila Lysaniae. (Eckhel, vol. iii. pp. 337, 345 ; Ptol. v. 15. 22 ; Plin. v. 18 ; Antonin. Itiner. pp. 198, 199, ed. WesseL) [W. K.1 ABILE'NE, or simply A'BILA ('A&ATJJ^, 'A&Aa), a district in Coele-Syria, of which the chief town was ABILA. The limits of this region are nowhere exactly defined, but it seems to have iucluded the eastern slopes of Antilibanus, and to ABODIACUM. have extended S. and SE. of Damascus as far as the borders of Galilaea, Batanaea, and Trachonitis. Abilene, when first mentioned in history, was go- verned by a certain Ptolemaeus, son of Mennaeus, who was succeeded, about B. c. 40, by a son named Lysanias. Lysanias was put to death in B. c. 33, at the instigation of Cleopatra, and the principality passed, by a sort of purchase apparently, into the hands of one Zenodorus, from whom it was trans- ferred (B. c. 31) to Herod the Great. At the death of the latter (A. D. 3) one portion of it was annexed to the tetrarchy of his son Philip, and the remainder bestowed upon that Lysanias who is named by St. Luke (iii. 1). Immediately after the death of Ti- berius (A. D. 37), Caligula made over to Herod Agrippa, at that time a prisoner in Home, the te- trarchy of Philip and the tetrarchy of Lysanias, while Claudius, upon his accession (A. D. 41), not only confirmed the liberality of his predecessor to wards Agrippa, but added all that portion of Judaea and Samaria which had belonged to the kingdom of his grandfather Herod the Great, together (says Josephus) with Abila, which had appertained to Lysanias ( y A&A(W Se rV Awcwiov), and the adjoining region of Libanus. Lastly, in A. D. 53, Claudius granted to the younger Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip with Batanaea and Trachonitis and Abila -^-Avaavia 5e avTij fyeydvet rerpapxio- (Joseph. Ant. xiv. 4. 4, 7. 4, xviii. 7. 10, xix. 5. 1, xx. 6. 1, B. J. i. 13. 1, xx. 4.) Josephus, at first sight, seems to contradict himself, in so far that in one passage (Ant. xviii. 7. 10) he represents Caligula as bestowing upon Herod Agrippa the tetrarchy of Lysanias, while in another (Ant. xix. 5. 1) he states that Abila of Lysanias was added by Clau- dius to the former dominions of Agrippa, but, in reality, these expressions must be explained as re- ferring to the division of Abilene which took place on the death of Herod the Great. We find Abila mentioned among the places captured by Placidus, one of Vespasian's generals, in A. D. 69 or 70 (Joseph. B. J. iv. 7. 5), and from that time for- ward it was permanently annexed to the province of Syria. [W. R.] a range of hills in Germany, extending from the Ober- land of Baden northward as far as the modern town of Pforzheim. In later times it was sometimes called Silva Marciana. On its eastern side are the sources of the Danube. Its name is sometimes spelt Arnoba or Arbona, but the correct orthography is established by inscriptions. (Orelli, Inscr. Lat. no. 1986.) Ptolemy (ii. 11. 7) incorrectly places the range of the Abnoba too far N. between the Maine and the source of the Ems. (Tacit. Germ. 1 ; Fest. Avien. Descript. Orb. 437 ; Plin. iv. 12. s. 24 ; Martian. Capell. vi. 662 ; comp. Creuzer, 2ur Gesch. der Alt-Rom. Cultur, pp. 65, 108.) [L. S.] ABOCCIS or ABUNCIS ('A.ovy K is, Ptol. iv. 7. 16; Plin. vi. 29. s. 35. 181, Aboccis in old editions, Abuncis in Sillig's: Aboosimbel or Jpsam- buT), a town in Aethiopia, between the Second Cataract and Syene, situated on the left bank of the NiJLe, celebrated on account of the two magnifi- cent grotto temples, which were discovered at this place by Belzoni. The walls of the krger of the two temples are .covered with paintings, which record the victories of Ramses III. over various nations of Africa and Asia. (Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol. i. p. 24, seq.) ABODI'ACUM, AUODI'ACUM ABOLLA, Tab. Peut.; Plol. ii. 13. 5 ABUZACUM, Vit. S. Magn. 28), a town of Vindelicia, probably coin- ciding with the modern Epfach on the river Lech, where remains of Roman buildings are still extant. The stations, however, in the Itineraries and the Peutingerian Table are not easily identified with Ihe site of Epfach; and Abodiacum is placed by some topographers at the hamlet of Peisenberg, on the slope of a hill with the same name, or in the neighbourhood of Rosenheim in Bavaria. (Itin. Anton.; Muchar, Noricum, p. 283.) [W. B. D.] ABOLLA ("AgoAAa), a city of Sicily, mentioned only by Stephanus Byzantinus (s. t?.), who affords no clue to its position, but it has been supposed, on account of the resemblance of the name, to have occupied the site of Avola, between Syracuse and Noto. A coin of this city has been published by D'Orvillc (Sicula, pt. ii. tab. 20), but is of very uncertain authority. (Eckhel, vol. i. p. 189 ; Castell. Sicil. Vet. Num. p. 4.) [E. II. B.] ABONI-TEICHOS (^ASwvov re^os : Eth. 'ASuvo- Tetx'T7js : Ineboli), a town on the coast of Paphla- gonia with a harbour, memorable as the birthplace of the impostor Alexander, of whom Luciau has left us an amusing account in the treatise bearing his name. (Diet, of Biogr. vol. i. p. 123.) Ac- ding to Lucian (Alex. 58), Alexander pe- ioned the emperor (probably Antoninus Pius) the name of his native place should be changed from Aboni-Teichos into lonopolis ; and whether the emperor granted the request or not, we know that the town was called lonopolis in later times. Not only does this name occur in Marcianus and Hierocles; but on coins of the time of Antoninus and L. Verus we find the legend mNOnOAITHN, us well as ABflNOTEIXITflN. The modern Ine- boli is evidently only a corruption of lonopolis. (Strab. p. 545; Arrian, Peripl. p. 15 ; Lucian, Alex., passim; Marcian. Peripl. p. 72; Ptol. v. 4. 2; Hierocl. p. 696; Steph. B. s. v. ' J113 1 K! tank signa count ABOPJ'GINES ('Agopi7??es), a name given by all the Roman and Greek writers to the earliest in- habitants of Latium, before they assumed the appel- lation of LATINI. There can be no doubt that the obvious derivation of this name (ab origins') is the true one, and that it could never have been a national title really borno by any people, but was a mere ab- stract appellation invented in later times, and in- tended, like the Autochthones of the Greeks, to de- te the primitive and original inhabitants of the ntry. The other derivations suggested by later writers, such as Aberrigines, from their wander- ing habits, or the absurd one which Dionysius seems inclined to adopt, " ab 8pfcndenr<; can of course be placed on these statements, but they were probably meant to distinguish the cities in question from those which were designated by tradition as of iVlasgian origin, or colonies of Alba. Sallust (Cat G) speaks of the Aborigines as a e people, without iixed laws or dwellings, but is probably a mere rhetorical exaggeration: it clear that Varro at least regarded them as pos- of fortified towns, temples, oracles, &c. ; and native traditions of the Latins concerning Janus and Saturn indicate that they had acquired all the primitive arts of civilisation before the period of the supposed Trojan colony. [E. II. B.] ABORRHAS. [CHABORAS.] AIJRAUANXUS ('Agpaovdwos, Ptol.ii.3. 2), a river of Britannia Barbara, which discharged itself a little northward of the Promontorium Novantum, or Mull of Galloway into Luce-Bay. Abravannus is probably the stream which flows tlirough Loch Ryan into the sea Ab-Ryan, or the offspring of Ryan, being easily convertible into the Roman form of the word Ab-Ryan-us Abravannus. [W. B. D.] ABRETTE'XE. [MvsiA.] AI1KINCATUI, a Gallic tribe (Plin. iv. 18), not mentioned by Caesar, whose frontier was near the Curiosolites. Then: town Ingena, called Abrin- catae in the Notitia Imperil, has given its name to the modem Avranckcs ; and their territory would probably correspond to the division of Av- ranchin. [G. L.] ABRO'TONUM ('AgpoWor), a Phoenician city on the coast of N. Africa, in the district of Tripoli- tana, between the Syrtes, usually identified with SAP.KATA, though Pliny makes them different places. (Scylax, p. 47 ; Strab. p. 835 5 Steph. B. a. v. ; Plin. v.4.) [P.S.] ABSY'RTIDES or APSY'RTIDES ('Apprises: Eth. 'A\l/vprfvs, *A\l/vpros: Cherso and Oscro), the name of two islands off the coast of Illyricum, so called because, according to one tradition, Absyrtus was slain here by his sister Medea and by Jason. Ptolemy mentions only one island APSORUUS ("A^op/Sos), on which he places two towns Crepsa (Kpe'^a) and Apsorrus. (Strab. p. 315; Steph. Byz. s. v.- Mel. ii. 7; Plin. iii. 26; Ptol. ii. 16. 13.) ABUS (4 "ASus) or ABA (Plin. v. 24. s. 20), a mountain in Armenia, forming a part of the E. prolongation of the Anti-Taurus chain, and sepa- rating the basins of the Araxes and of the Arsanias or S. branch of the Euphrates (Murad). The latter of these great rivers rises on its S. side, and, ac- cording to Strabo, the former also rises on its N. side. According to this statement, the range must be considered to begin as far W. as the neighbour- hood of Erzeroom, while it extends E. to the Araxes S. of Artaxata. Here it terminates in the great isolated peak, 17,210 feet high, and covered with perpetual snow, which an almost uniform tradition lias pointed out as the Ararat of Scripture (Gen. viii. 4), and which is still called Ararat or Agri- Dagh, and, by the Persians, Kuh-i-Nuh (mountain of Noah"): it is situated in 39 42' N. lat., and 44 35' E. long. This summit forms the culminating point of W. Asia. The chain itself is called A la-dagh. (Strab. pp. 527, 531 ; Ptol. v. 13.) [P. S.] ABUS ("Agos, Ptol. ii. 3. 6: Ewmler\ one of the principal rivers, or rather estuaries in the Roman province of Maxima Caesariensis in Britain. It re- ceives many tributaries, and discharges itself into the ABYDUS. 7 Gorman Ocean south of Orel urn Prorr.ontorinm (Spurn Head}. Its left bank was inhabited by the Celtic tribe, whom the Romans entitled Parisi. but according to a medieval poet cited by Cam- den, no great town or city anciently stood on its banks. [W.B.D.] ABUSI'NA, ABUSENA, a town of Vindelicia, situated on the river Abens, and corresponding nearly to the modern Abensbery. Abusina stood near to the eastern termination of the high road which ran from the Roman military station Vinde- u the Aar to the Danube. Roman walls are still extant, and Roman remains still discovered at Abensberg. [W. B. D.] ABY'DUS. 1. (VAguSos, Abydum, Plin. v. 32: Eth. t Av5tiv6s, Abydenus), a city of Mysia on the Hellespontus, nearly opposite Sestus on the Euro- pean shore. It is mentioned as one of the towns in alliance with the Trojans. (II. ii. 836.) Aidos or Avido, a modern village on the Hellespont, may be the site of Abydos, though the conclusion from a name is not certain. Abydus stood at the narrowest point of the Hellespontus, where the channel is only 7 stadia wide, and it had a small port. It was probably a Thracian town originally, but it became a Milesian colony. (Thuc. viii. 61.) At a point a little north of this town Xerxes placed his bridge of boats, by which his troops were conveyed across the channel to the opposite town of Sestus, B. c. 480. (Herod, vii. 33.) The bridge of boats extended, according to Herodotus, from Abydus to a promon- tory on the European shore, between Sestus and Madytus. The town possessed a small territory which contained some gold mines, but Strabo speaks of them as exhausted. It was burnt by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, after his Scythian expedition, for fear that the Scythians, who were said to be in pur- suit of him, should take possession of it (Strab. p. 591); but it must soon have recovered from this calamity, for it was afterwards a town of some note ; and Herodotus (v. 117) states that it was captured by the Persian general, Daurises, with other cities on the Hellespont (B. c. 498), shortly after the commencement of the Ionian revolt. In B. c. 411, Abydus revolted from Athens and joined Dercyllidas, the Spartan commander in those parts. (Thuc. viii. 62.) Subsequently, Abydus made a vigo- rous defence against Philip II., king of Macedonia, before it surrendered. On the conclusion of the war with Philip (B. c. 196), the Romans declared Abydus, with other Asiatic cities, to be free. (Liv. xxxiii. 30.) The names of Abydus and Sestus are coupled together in the old story of Hero and Leander, who is said to have swam across the channel to visit his mistress at Sestus. The distance between Abydus and Sestus, from port to port, was about 30 stadia, according to Strabo. [G. L!] COIN OF ABYDUS. 8 ABYDUS. 2. In ancient times termed THIS, in Coptic Ebot, now Ardbat el Matfoon, was the chief town of the NOMOS THINITES, and was situated on the Bohr Ywuf, at a short distance from the point where that water-course strikes off from the Nile, being about 7 5 miles to the west of the river, in lat. 26 10' N. f long. 32 3' E. It was one of the most important cities in Egypt under the native kings, and in the Thebaid ranked next to Thebes itself. Here, according to the belief generally pre- valent, was the burying-place of Osiris : here Menes, the first mortal monarch, was born, and the two first dynasties in Manetho are composed of Thinite mo- narchs. In the time of Strabo it had sunk to a mere village, but it was still in existence when Ammianus Marcellinus wrote, and the seat of an oracle of the god Besa. Abydus has acquired great celebrity of late years in consequence of the important ruins, nearly buried in sand, discovered on the ancient site, and from the numerous tombs, some of them belonging to a very remote epoch, which are found in the neighbouring hills. Indeed Plutarch expressly states that men of distinction among the Egyptians frequently se- lected Abydus as their place of sepulture, in order that their remains might repose near those of Osiris. The two great edifices, of which remains still exist, are: 1. An extensive pile, called the Palace of Memnon (Mf/j.v6viov &aa,:a), a considerable inland city of Hispania Tarraconensis, on the borders of Baetica ; under the Romans a colony, with the Jus Latinum, under the full name of Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana. Its coins are numerous, bearing the heads of Augustus, Tilxrius, Germanicus, Drusus, and Caligula, and the ensigns of the legions iii. and vi., from which it was colonised by Julius or Augustus, and from which it derived the name of Gemella (Itin. Ant. pp. 402, 404; Plin. iii. 3. s. 4; Inscr. ap. Gruter, ].. 271; Eckhel, vol. i. pp. 34 35; Rasche, s. v.} According to Macrobius (Sat. i. 19), Mars was wor- shipped here with his head surrounded with the sun's rays, under the name of Netos. Such an blem is seen on the coins. [P. S.] A'CCUA, a small town of Apulia, mentioned only by Liv v (xxiv. 20) as one of the places recovered by Q. Fabius from the Carthaginians in the fifth year of the Second Punic War, B. c. 214. It ap- pears from this passage to have been somewhere in the neighbourhood of Luceria, but its exact site is unknown. [E. H. B.] ACE C'AKTJ: Eth. 'A/ca?os), the ACCIIO ("Awx**) of the Old Testament (Judg. i. 31), the Akka of the * ibs, a celebrated town*and harbour on the shores Phoenicia, in lat, 32 54', long. 35 6' E. It is situated on the point of a small promontory, the northern extremity of a circular bay, of which the opposite or southern horn is formed by one of the Iges of Mount Carmel. During the period that :olemy Sotcr was in possession of Coele-Syria, it received the name of PTOLEMAIS (IlToAe/ucus : Eth. nTO\e^atTT7?, n-roAe/xaieus), by which it was long distinguished. In the reign of the emperor Claudius it became a Roman colony, and was styled COLONIA CLAUDII CAESAKIS PTOLEMAIS, or simply COLONIA PTOLEMAIS; but from the time when it was occupied by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, it has been erally known all over Christendom as St Jean 'Acre, or simply Acre. The advantages offered by the position of Acre were recognised from an early period by those who desired to keep the command of the Syrian coast, but it did not rise to eminence until after the decay of Tyre and Sidon. When Strabo wrote (p. 758), it was already a great city ; and although it has under- gone many vicissitudes, it has always maintained a certain degree of importance. It originally be- longed to the Phoenicians, and, though nominally included within the territory of the tribe of Asher, was never conquered by the Israelites. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Babylonians, and from them to the Persians. According to the first dis- tribution of the dominions of Alexander it was assigned to Ptolemy Soter, but subsequently fell under the Seleucidae, and after changing hands re- peatedly eventually fell under the dominion of Rome. It is said at present to contain from 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. [W. R.] A'CELUM (Asolo'), a town of the interior of Vonetia, situated near the foot of the Alps, about 18 miles NW. of Trevlso. (Plin. iii. 19. s. 23 ; Ptol. iii. 1. 30.) The name is written "AxeSov in our editions of Ptolemy, but the correctness of the form Acelum given by Pliny is confirmed by that of the modern town. We learn from Paulus Diaconus (iii. 25, where it is corruptly written Aciliuni), that it was a bishop's see in the 6th century. [E. H. B.] ACES. 11 wer &m ACERRAE ('AX'#<: Acerranus). 1. A city in the interior of Campania, about 8 miles NE. of Naples, still called Acerra. It first appears in his- tory as an independent city during the great war of the Campanians and Latins against Rome; shortly after the conclusion of which, in B.C. 332, the Acer- rani, in common with several other Campanian cities, obtained the Roman " civitas," but without the right of suffrage. The period at which this latter privi- i- granted them is not mentioned, but it is certain that they ultimately obtained the full rights of Roman citi/.ens. (Liv. viii. 17; Festus, s. v. JI/nticij>itti/i, Munlceps, and Praefectura, pp. 127, ML', -2:M, ed. Miiller.) In the second Punic war it was faithful to the Roman alliance, on which ac- count it was besieged by Hannibal in B. c. 216, and being abandoned by the inhabitants in despair, was plundered and burnt. But after the expulsion of Hannibal from Campania, the Acerrani, with the consent of the Roman senate, returned to and rebuilt their city, B.C. 210. (Liv. xxiii. 17, xxvii. 3.) During the Social War it was besieged 1/y the Samnite general, C. Papius, but offered so vigorous a resistance that he was unable to reduce it. (Ap- pian. JB. C. i. 42, 45.) Virgil praises the fertility of' its territory, but the town itself had suffered so much from the frequent inundations of the river Clanius, on which it was situated, that it was in his time al- most deserted. (Virg. Georg. ii. 225; and Servius adloc.; Sil. Ital. viii. 537; Vib. Seq. p. 21.) It subsequently received a colony under Augustus (Lib. Colon, p. 229), and Strabo speaks of it in conjunc- tion with Nola and Nuceria, apparently as a place of some consequence. It does not seem, however, to have retained its colonial rank, but is mentioned by Pliny as an ordinary municipal town. (Strab. v. pp. 247, 249; Plin. iii. 5. s. 9; Orell. Inscr. no. 3716.) The modern town of Acerra retains the site as well as the name of the ancient one, but it does not appear that any vestiges of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, remain there. (Lupuli, Iter Ven?u~ sin. p. 10 12.) The coins with an Oscan legend which were referred by Eckhel and earlier numisma- tists to Acerrae, belong properly to ATELLA. (Mil- lingen, Numismatique de FAncicime Italie, p. 190; Friedlander, Oskischen Munzen, p. 15.) 2. A city of Cisalpine Gaul, in the territory of the Insubres. Polybius describes it merely as situ- ated between the Alps and the Po; and his words are copied by Stephanus of Byzantium : but Strabo tells us that it was near Cremona: and the Tabula places it on the road from that city to Laus Pompeia (Lodi Vecchio), at a distance of 22 Roman miles from the latter place, and 13 from Cremona. These distances coincide with the position of Gherra or Gera, a village, or rather suburb of Pizzighetlone, on the right bank of the river Adda. It appears to have been a place of considerable strength and im- portance (probably as commanding the passage of the Adda} even before the Roman conquest: and in B.C. 222, held out for a considerable time against the consuls Marcellus and Scipio, but was compelled to surrender after the battle of Clastidium. (Pol. ii. 34 ; Plut. Marc. 6 ; Zonar. viii. 20 ; Strab. v. p. 247 ; Steph. B. s. v. ; Tab. Peut. ; Cluver. Ital p. 244.) 3. A third town of the name, distinguished by the epithet of VATRIAE, is mentioned by Pliny (iii. 14. s. 19) as having been situated in Umbria, but it was already destroyed in his time, and all clue to its po- sition is lost. [E. H. B.] ACES ("A/ojs), a river of Asia, flowing tlirougb. 12 ACESINES. a plain surrounded by mountains, respecting which a story is told by Herodotus (iii. 117). Geographers are not agreed as to the locality. It seems to be somewhere in Central Asia, E. of the Caspian. It is pretty clear, at all events, that the Aces of He- rodotus is not the Indian river Acesines. [P. S.] ACESINES ('A/ceo-iVTjs), a river of Sicily, which flows, into the sea to the south of Tauromenium. Its name occurs only in Thucydides (iv. 25) on occasion of the attack made on Naxos by the Mes- senians hi B. c. 425 : but it is evidently the same river which is called by Pliny (iii. 8) ASINES, and by Vibius Sequester (p. 4) ASINIUS. Both these writers place it in the immediate neighbourhood of Tauromenium, and it can be no other than the river now called by the Arabic name of Cantara, a con- siderable stream, which, after following throughout its course the northern boundary of Aetna, dis- charges itself into the sea immediately to the S. of Capo Schizb, the site of the ancient Naxos. The ONOBALAS of Appian (B. C.v. 109) is probably only another name for the same river. Cluverius appears to be mistaken in regarding the Fiume Freddo as the Acesines : it is a very small stream, while the Cantara is one of the largest rivers in Sicily, and could hardly have been omitted by Pliny. (Cluver. Sicil p. 93 ; Mannert, vol. ix. pt. ii. p. 284.) [E. H. B.] ACESINES ('A/f eo-krjs : CTienab : Dionysius Periegetes, v. 1138, makes the i long, if any choose to consider this an authority), the chief of the five great tributaries of the Indus, which give the name of Punjab (i. e. Five Waters) to the great plain of NW. India. These rivers are described, in their connection with each other, under INDIA. The Acesines was the second of them, reckoning from the W., and, after receiving the waters of all the rest, retained its name to its junction with the Indus, in lat. 28 55' N., long. 70 28' E. Its Sanscrit name was Chandrabhaga, which would have been Hellenized into ~2,av8podyos, that the followers of Alexander changed the name to avoid the evil omen, the more so perhaps on account of the disaster which befell the Macedonian fleet at the turbulent junction of the river with the Hydaspes (Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vol. iv. pt. i. p. 456: for other references see INDIA.) [P. S.] ACESTA. [SEGESTA.] ACHAEI ('AXCUO/), one of the four races into which the Hellenes are usually divided. In the heroic age they are found in that part of Thessaly in which Phthia and Hellas were situated, and also in the eastern part of Peloponnesus, more especially in Argos and Sparta. Argos was frequently called the Achaean Argos ("Apyos 'AxaiMv, Horn. II. ix. 141) to distinguish it from the Pelasgian Argos in Thessaly; but Sparta is generally men- tioned as the head-quarters of the Achaean race in Peloponnesus. Thessaly and Peloponnesus were thus the two chief abodes of this people; but there Were various traditions respecting their origin, and a difference of opinion existed among the an- cients, whether the Thessalian or the Peloponnesian Achaeans were the more ancient. They were usually represented as descendants of Achaeus, the son of Xuthus and Creusa, and consequently the brother of Ion and grandson of Hellen. Pausanias (vii. 1) related that Achaeus went back to Thessaly, and recovered the dominions of which his father, Xuthus, had been deprived; and then, in order to ACHAIA. explain the existence of the Achaoans in Pelopon- nesus, he adds that Archander and Architeles, the sons of Achaeus, came back from Phthiotis to Argos, married the two daughters of Danaus, and acquired such influence at Argos and Sparta, that they called the people Achaeans after their father Achaeus. On the other hand, Strabo in one passage says (p. 383), that Achaeus having fled from Attica, where his father Xuthus had settled, settled in Lace- daemon and gave to the inhabitants the name of Achaeans. In another passage, however, he relates (p. 365), that Pelops brought with him into Pelo- ponnesus the Phthiotan Achaeans, who settled in Laconia. It would be unprofitable to pursue fur- ther the variations in the legends; but we may safely believe that the Achaeans in Thessaly were more ancient than those in Peloponnesus, since all tradition points to Thessaly as the cradle of the Hellenic race. There is a totally different account, which represents the Achaeans as of Pelasgic origin. It is preserved by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (i. i"), who relates that Achaeus, Phthius, and Pelasgus were sons of Poseidon and Larissa; and that they migrated from Peloponnesus to Thessaly, where they divided the country into three parts, called after them Achaia, Phthiotis and Pelasgiotis. A modern writer is disposed ty accept this tradition so far, as to assign a Pelasgic origin to the Achaeans, though he regards the Phthiotan Achaeans as more ancient than their brethren in the Peloponnesus. (Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, vol. L p. 109, seq.) The only fact known in the earliest history of the people, which we can admit with certainty, is their existence as the predominant race in the south of Thessaly, and on the eastern side of Peloponnesus. They are represented by Homer as a brave and warlike people, and so distinguished were they that he usually calls the Greeks in general Achaeans or Panachaeans (Ilavaxaiot, II. ii. 404, vii. 73, &c.). In the same manner Peloponnesus, and some- times the whole of Greece, is called by the poet the Achaean land. ('Axaits ycua, Horn. II. \. 254, Od. xiii. 249.) On the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, 80 years after the Trojan war, the Achaeans were driven out of Argos and Laconia, and those who remained behind were reduced to the condition of a conquered people. Most of the ex- pelled Achaeans, led by Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, proceeded to the land on the northern coast of Peloponnesus, which was called simply Aegialns (AtyaAtk) or the " Coast," and was inhabited by lonians. The latter were defeated by the Achaeans and crossed over to Attica and Asia Minor, leaving their country to their conquerors, from whom it was henceforth called Achaia. (Strab. p. 383; Paus. vii. 1; Pol. ii. 41; comp. Herod, i. 145.) The further history of the Achaeans is given under ACHAIA. The Achaeans founded several colonies, of which the most celebrated were Croton and Sybaris. [CROTON; SYBARIS.] ACHA'IA ('Axafa, Ion. 'A^ain;: Eih. 'Axai6s, Achaeus, Achivus,/e?ra. and adj. 'Axaids, Achaias, Achais: Adj. 'AxaiWs, Achaicus, Achaius). 1. A district in the S. of Thessaly, hi which Phthia and Hellas were situated. It appears to have been the original abode of the Achaeans, who were hence called Phthiotan Achaeans ('A^aioi ol QOiUJTai) to distinguish them from the Achaeans hi the Pelo- ponnesus. [For details see ACHAEI.] It was from this part of Thessaly that Achilles came, and Homer says that the subjects of this hero were ACHAIA. called Myrmidons, and Hellenes, and Achnoans. (It. ii. 684.) This district continued to retain the name of Achaia in the time of Herodotus (vii. 173, 197), and the inhabitants of Phthia were called Phthiotan Achaeans till a still later period. (Thuc. viii. 3.) An account of this part of Thessaly is given under THESSALIA. 2. Originally called AEGIALUS or AEGIALEIA (Aiyta\6s, Alytd\fia, Horn. IL ii. 575; Paus. vii. 1. 1; Strab. p. 383), that is, "the Coast," a province in the N. of Peloponnesus, extended along the Corinthian gulf from the river Larissus, a little S. of the promontory Araxus, which separated it from Elis, to the river Sythas, which separated it from Sicyonia. On the S. it was bordered by Ar- cadia, and on the SW. by Elis. Its greatest length along the coast is about 65 English miles: its breadth from about 12 to 20 miles. Its area was probably about 650 square miles. Achaia is thus only a narrow slip of country, lying upon the slope of the northern range of Arcadia, through which are deep and narrow gorges, by which alone Achaia can be invaded from the south. From this moun- tain range descend numerous ridges running down into the sea, or separated from it by narrow levels. The plains on the coast at the foot of these moun- tains and the vallies between them are generally very fertile. At the present day cultivation ends with the plain of Patra, and the whole of the west- cm part of Achaia is forest or pasture. The plains are drained by numerous streams; but in consequence of the proximity of the mountains to the sea the course of these torrents is necessarily short, and most of them are dry in summer. The coast is generally low, and deficient in good harbours. Colonel Leake remarks, that the level along the coast of Achaia " appears to have been formed in the course of ages by the soil deposited by the torrents which descend from the lofty mountains that rise immediately at the back of the plains. Wherever the rivers are largest, the plains are most extensive, and each river has its correspondent promontory proportioned in like manner to its volume. These promontories are in general nearly opposite to the openings at which the rivers emerge from the mountains." (Peloponnesiaca, p. 390.) The highest mountain in Achaia is situated be- hind Patrae ; it is called MONS PANACHAICUS by Polybius, and is, perhaps, the same as the Scio- e'ssa of Pliny (T& Uavaxa'iKbv opos, Pol. v. 30 ; Plin. iv. 6 : Voidhia). It is 6322 English feet in height. (Leake, Travels in Morea, vol. ii. p. 138, Peloponnesiaca, p. 204.) There are three conspi- cuous promontories on the coast. 1. DREPANUM (Apeiravov : C. Dhrepano"), the most northerly point in Peloponnesus, is confounded by Strabo with the neighbouring promontory of Ehium, but it is the low sandy point 4 miles eastward of the latter. Its name is connected by Pausanias with the sickle of Cronus ; but we know that this name was often applied by the ancients to low sandy promontories, which assume the form of a Sptiravov, or sickle. (Strab. p. 335 ; Paus. vii. 23. .4; Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 415.) 2. EHIUM ('Piov. Castle of the Morea), 4 miles westward of Drepanum, as men- tioned above, is opposite the promontory of ANTIR- KHIUM, sometimes also called Ehium ('AvTippiov: Castle of Rumili), on the borders of Aetolia and Locris. In order tc distinguish them from each other the former was called rb 'Axcu'tfoV, and the latter rb Mo\vKpiKov from its vicinity to the town ACHAIA. 13 oi Molycreium. These two promontories formed the entrance of the Corinthian gulf. The breadth of the strait is stated both by Dodwell and Leako to be about a mile and a half; but the ancient writers make the distance less. Thucydides makes it 7 stadia, Strabo 5 stadia, and Pliny nearly a Roman mile. On the promontory of Bhium thero was a temple of Poseidon. (Thuc. ii. 86 ; Strab. pp. 335, 336; Plin. iv. 6; Steph. B. *. v.; Dod- well, Classical Tour, vol. i. p. 126; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 147.) 3. ARAXUS ("Apoos: Kalogria), W. of Dyme, formerly the boundary between Achaia and Elis, but the confines were afterwards extended to the river Larissus. (Pol. iv. 65 ; Strab. pp. 335, 336; Paus. vi. 26. 10.) The following is a list of the rivers of Achaia from E. to W. Of these the only two of any im- portance are the Crathis (No. 3) and the Peirus (No. 14). 1. SYTIIAS, or SYS (250as, 20s), form- ing the boundary between Achaia and Sicyonia. We may infer that this river was at no great dis- tance from Sicyon, from the statement of Pausanias, that at the festival of Apollo there was a procession of children from Sicyon to the Sythas, and back again to the city. (Paus. ii. 7. 8, ii. 12. 2, vii. 27. 12; Ptol. iii. 16. 4; comp. Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 383, Peloponnesiaca, p. 403.) 2. CKIUS (Kpioio-Tos): Politeia (IIoAiTeta) ; Psophis (cof/s), which first belonged to Achaia, afterwards to Elis, and lay near Patrae. Athcnaeus (xiv. p. 658) mentions an Achaean town, named Tromileia (Tpojiu'Aeta) celebrated for its cheese. Respecting the geography of Achaia in general see Miiller, Dorians, vol. ii. p. 428, seq.; Leake's Morca, vols. ii. & iii., and Fcloponnesiaca; Boblaye, Recherches, p. 15, seq. ; Curtius, Peloponnesos, vol. i. p. 403. seq. ACHAIA. 17 COIN OF ACIIAIA. 3. ACHAIA, the Roman province, including the whole of Peloponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper with the adjacent islands. The time, however, at which this country was reduced to the form of a Roman province, as well as its exact limits, are open to much discussion. It is usually stated by modern writers that the province was formed on the conquest of the Achaeans in B.C. 146; but there are several reasons for ques- tioning this statement. In the first place it is not stated by any ancient writer that Greece was formed into a province at this time. The silence of Poly- bins on the subject would be conclusive, if we pos- sessed entire that part of his history which related the conquest of the Achaeans: but in the existing fragments of that portion of his work, there ib uu allusion to the establishment of a Roman province, although we find mention of various regulations adopted by the Romans for the consolidation of their power. 2. Many of these regulations would have been unnecessary if a provincial government had been established. Thus we are told that the government of each city was placed in the hands of tin; wealthy, and that all federal assemblies were abolished. Through the influence of Polybius the. federal assemblies were afterwards allowed to be held, and some of the more stringent regulations were re- pealed. (Pol. xl. 810 ; Paus. vii. 16. 10.) The re-establishment of these ancient forms appeai-s to have been described by the Romans as a restora- tion of liberty to Greece. Thus we find in an in- scription discovered at Dyme mention of ri airoSfSo- (jLevr) Kara Koivbv Tois "E\\r] ds T^V 'EAActSo 'Pa>yua?ot arpaniyovs 8ifirf/j.irovro) ; and that disputes in the country were referred to the decision of the governor of Macedonia. There is the less reason for ques- tioning this statement, since it is hi accordance with the description of the proceedings of L. Piso, when governor of Macedonia, who is represented as plundering the countries of southern Greece, and ex- ercising sovereignty over them, which he could hardly have done, if they had been subject to a provincial administration of their own. (Cic. c. Pis, 40.) It is probable that the south of Greece was first made a separate province by Julius Caesar; since the first governor of the province of whom any mention is made (as far as we are aware) was Serv. Sulpicius, and he was appointed to this office by Caesac. (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6. 10.) In the division of the provinces made by Au- gustus, the whole of Greece was divided into the provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Epeirus, the latter of which formed part of Illyris. Achaia was one of the provinces assigned to the senate and was governed by a proconsul. (Strab. p. 840; Dion Cass. liii. 12.) Tiberius in the second year of his reign (A. D. 16) took it away from the senate and made it an imperial province (Tac. Ann. i. 76), but Claudius gave it back again to the senate (Suet. Claud. 25). In the reign of this emperor Corinth was the residence of the proconsul, and it was here that the Apostle Paul was brought before Junius Gallic as proconsul of Achaia. (Acta Apost. xviii. 12.) Nero abolished the province of Achaia, and gave the Greeks their liberty ; but Vespasian again established the provincial government and compelled the Greeks to pay a yearly tribute. (Paus. vii. 17. 3,4; Suet, Vesp. 8.) The boundaries between the provinces of Mace- donia, Epeiru.s, and Achaia, arc difficult to deter- mine. Strabo (p. 840), in his enumeration of the pro- vinces of the Roman empire, says: 'E^S6fj.t]v 'Axatav /cat AjYa>Aa>j/ nal 'AKapvdvuv, /cat 'HTn-tpamKoJj/ eflrwj/, oaa vfj MaKtSovia. iffTai. " The seventh (province) is Achaia, u]> to Thessaly and the Aetolians and Acamanians and some Epeirot tribes, which border upon Macedonia.*" Most modern writers understand fJ-fXP 1 as inclusive, and consequently make Achaia include Thea>uly, C 18 ACHAIA. Aetolia, and Acarnania. Their interpretation is con- firmed by a passage in Tacitus, in which Nicopolis jn the south of Epeirus is called by Tacitus (Ann. ii. 53) a city of Achaia ; but too much stress must not be laid upon this passage, as Tacitus may only have used Achaia in its widest signification as equivalent to Greece. If M e/ XP* is not inclusive, Thessaly, Aetolia, and Acarnania must be assigned either wholly to Macedonia, or partly to Macedonia and partly to Epeirus. Ptolemy (iii. 2, seq.), in his division of Greece, assigns Thessaly to Mace- donia, Acarnania to Epeirus, and Aetolia to Achaia; and it is probable that this represents the political division of the country at the time at which he lived (A.D. 150). Achaia continued to be a Roman pro- vince governed by proconsuls down to the time of Justinian. (Kruse, Hellas, vol. i. p. 573.) ACHA'RACA ('AxdpaKa), a village of Lydia, on the road from Tralles to Nysa, with a Plutonium or a temple of Pluto, and a cave, named Charonium, where the sick were healed under the direction of the priests. (Strab. xiv. pp. 649, 650.) ACHARNAE ('Axapvai : th.'A X apvvs, Achar- nanus, Nep. Them. 1.; Adj. 'Axapvi/cos), the prin- cipal demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Oeneis, was situated 60 stadia N. of Athens, and conse- quently not far from the foot of Mt. Parnes. It was from the woods of this monntain that the Achar- nians were enabled to carry on that traffic in char- coal for which they were noted among the Athenians. (Aristoph. Acharn. 332.) Their land was fertile ; their population was rough and warlike ; and they furnished at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war 3000 hoplites, or a tenth of the whole infantry of the republic. They pssessed sanctuaries or altars of Apollo Aguieus, of Heracles, of Athena Hygieia, of Athena Hippia, of Dionysus Melpomenus, and of Dionysus Cissus, so called, because the Achamians said that the ivy first grew in this demus. One of the plays of Aristophanes bears the name of the Achamians. Leake supposes that branch of the plain of Athens, which is included between the foot of the hills of Khassid and a projection of the range of Aegaleos, stretching east- ward from the northern termination of that moun- tain, to have been the district of the demus Acharuae. The exact situation of the town has not yet been discovered. Some Hellenic remains, situated f of a mile to the westward of Menidhi, have generally been taken for those of Archarnae ; but Menidhi is more probably a corruption of HaioviScu. (Thuc. ii. 13, 19 21; Lucian, Icaro-Menip. 18; Pind. Nem. ii. 25 ; Paus. i. 31. 6 ; Athen. p. 234 ; Steph. B. s.v. ; Leake, Demi of Attica, p. 35, seq.) ACHARRAE, a town of Thessaly in the district Thessaliotis, on the river Pamisus, mentioned only by Livy (xxxii. 13), but apparently the same place as the Acharne of Pliny (iv. 9. s. 16). ACHA'TES OxarTjs), a small river in Sicily, noticed by Silius Italicus for the remarkable clear- ness of its waters (perlucentem splendenti gurgite Achaten, xiv. 228), and by various other writers as the place where agates were found, and from whence they derived the name of " lapis Achates," which they have retained in all modern languages. It has been identified by Cluverius (followed by most mo- dem geographers) with the river Dirillo, a small stream on the S. coast of Sicily, about 7 miles E. of Terranova, which is indeed remarkable for the clear- ness of its waters : but Pliny, the only author who affords any clue to its position, distinctly places the ACHELOUS. Achates between Thermae and Selinus, in the SW. quarter of the island. It cannot, therefore, be the Dirillo, but its modern name is unknown. (Plin. iii. 8. s. 14, xxxvii. 10. s. 54 ; Theophrast. de Lapid. 31 ; Vib. Seq. p. 3; Solin. 5. 25; Cluver. Sicil. p. 201.) [E.H.B.] ACHELOTJS ('AxeAos, Epic 'AxeXwibs). 1. (Aspropotamo"), the largest and most celebrated river in Greece, rose in Mount Pindus, and after flowing through the mountainous country of the Dolopians and Agraeans, entered the plain of Acamania and Aetolia near Stratus, and discharged itself into the Ionian sea, near the Acarnanian town of Oeniadae. It subsequently formed the boundary between Acarnania and Aetolia, but in the time of Thucydides the territory of Oeniadae extended east of the river. It is usually called a river of" Acarnania, but it is sometimes assigned to Aetolia. Its general direction is from north to south. Its waters are of a whitish yellow or cream colour, whence it derives its modern name of Aspro- potamo or the White river, and to which Dionysius (432) probably alludes in the epithet apyvpoSivr)?. It is said to have been called more anciently Thoas, Axenus and Thestius (Thuc. ii. 102; Strab. pp. 449, 450, 458; Plut. de Fluv. 22; Steph. B. s.v.) We learn from Leake that the reputed sources of the Achelous are at a village called Khaliki, which is probably a conniption of Chalcis, at which place Dionysius Periegetes (496) places the sources of the river. Its waters are swelled by numerous torrents, which it receives hi its passage through the mountains, and when it emerges into the plain near Stratus its bed is not less than three-quarters of a mile in width. In whiter the entire bed is often filled, but in the middle of summer the river is divided into five or six rapid streams, of which only two are of a considerable size. After leaving Stratus the river becomes narrower; and, in the lower part of its course, the plain through which it flows was called hi antiquity Paracheloitis after the river. This plain was celebrated for its fertility, though covered hi great part with marshes, several of which were formed by the overflowings of the Achelous. In this part of its course the river presents the most extraordinary series of wander- ings; and these deflexions, observes a recent tra- veller, are not only so sudden, but so extensive, as to render it difficult to trace the exact line of its bed, and sometimes, for several miles, having its direct course towards the sea, it appears to flow back into the mountains in which it rises. The Achelous brings down from the mountains an immense quantity of earthy particles, which have formed a number of small islands at its mouth, which belong to the group anciently called Echi- nades ; and part of the mainland near its mouth is only alluvial deposition. [EcHiNADES.] (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 136, seq., vol. iii. p. 513, vol. iv. p. 211 ; Mure, Journal of a, Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 102.) The chief tributaries of the Achelous were: on its left, the CAMPYLUS (Ka^uTTuAos, Diod. xix. 67 : Medghova), a river of considerable size, flowing from Dolopia through the territory of the Dryopes and Eurytanes, and the CYATHUS (KvaOos, Pol. ap. Ath. p. 424, c.) flow- ing out of the lake Hyrie into the main stream just above Conope : on its right the PETITAKUS (Liv. xliii. 22) in Aperantia, and the ANAPIJS ("AVOTTOS), which fell into the main stream in Acarnania 80 stadia S. of Stratus. (Thuc. ii. 82.) ACIIERDUS. The Achelous was regarded as the ruler and representative of all fresh water in Hellas. Hence he is called by Homer (II xx. 194) Kpeiwv 'AX*- Awi'os, and was worshipped as a mighty god through- out Greece. He is celebrated in mythology on account of his combat with Heracles for the posses- sion of Dei'aneira. The river-god first attacked lli-rades in the form of a serpent, and on being worsted assumed that of a bull. The hero wrenched off one of his horns, which forthwith became a cornucopia, or horn of plenty. (Soph. Track. 9 ; Ov. Met. ix. 8, seq.; Apollod. ii. 7. 5.) This legend alludes apparently to some efforts made at an early period to check the ravages, which the inundations of the river caused in this district; and if the river was confined within its bed by embankments, the region would be converted in modern times into a land of plenty. For further details respecting the mythological character of the Achelous, see Diet, of Biogr. and Myth. s. v. In the Roman poets we find Achelo'ides, i. e. the Sirenes, the daughters of Achelous (Ov. Met. v. 552): Achelo'ia Cattirhoe, because Callirhoe was the daughter of Achelous (Ov. Met. ix. 413): pocula Achelo'ia, i. e. water in general (Virg. Georg. i. 9): Acheloius heros, that is, Tydeus, son of Oeneus, king of Calydon, Acheloius here being equivalent to Aetolian. (Stat. Theb. ii. 142^ 2. A river of Thessaly, in the district of Malis, flowing near Lamia. (Strab. pp. 434, 450.) 3. A mountain torrent in Arcadia, flowing into the Alphcus,, from the north of Mount Lycaeus. (Paus. viii. 38. 9.) 4. Also called PEIRUS, a river hi Achaia, flowing near Dyme. (Strab. pp. 342, 450.) ACHERDUS ('AxepSoCs, -ovvros : Eth. 'Ax*p- Soutnos), a demus of Attica of uncertain site, be- longing to the tribe Hippothoontis. Aristophanes (Eccl. 362) in joke, uses the form 'AxpaSownos instead of 'Ax^pSovvios. (Steph. B. s. vv. 'A-x e P- 8o5s, 'AxpaSovs ; Aeschin. in Tim. 110, ed. Bek- ker ; Leake, Demi of Attica, p. 185.) ACHERI'NI, the inhabitants of a small town in Sicily, mentioned only by Cicero among the victims of the oppressions of Verres. Its position is quite uncertain; whence modern scholars propose to read either Scherini, or Achetini from ACHETUM, a town supposed to be mentioned by Silius Italicus (xiv. 268); but the " pubes liquentis Acheti" (or Achaeti, as the name stands in the best MSS.) of that author would seem to indicate a river rather than a town. There is, however, no authority for either emendation. (Cic. Verr. iii. 43 ; Zumpt ad loc. ; Orell. Onomast, p. 6 ; Cluver. Sicil. p. 38 1 .) [E. H. B.] A'CHERON ('Axp*0, the name of several rivers, all of which were, at least at one time, be- lieved to be connected with the lower world. The Acheron as a river of the lower world, is described in the Did. of Biogr. and Myth. 1. A river of Epeirus in Thesprotia, which passed through the lake Acherusia (jAxtpovaia Xl^vif), and after receiving the river Cocytus (Kw/curos), flowed into the Ionian sea, S. of the promontory Cheime- rium. Pliny (iv. 1) erroneously states that the river flowed into the Ambraciot gulf. The bay of the sea into which it ilowed was usually called Glycys Limen (rxu/cus AijUTji') or Sweet-Harbour, because the water was fresh on account of the quan- tity poured into it from the lake and river. Scylax and Ptolemy call the harbour Elaea E\aia), and ACHERUSIA PALUS. 19 the surrounding district bore according to Thucy- dides the name of Klaeatis ('EAcna-m). The Acheron is the modern Curia or river of Sidi, llio Cocytus is the Vuvo, and the great marsh or lake below Kastri the Acherusia. The water of the Vuvo is reported to be bad, which agrees with the account of Pausanias (i. 17. 5) in relation to the water of the Cocytus (05o>p aTepTreo-TOToi'). The Glycys Limen is called Port Fandri, and its water is still fad) ; and in the lower part of the plain the river is commonly called the river of Fandri. The upper part of the plain is called Glylcy; and thus 1 lie ancient name of the harbour has been transferred from the coast into the interior. On the Acheron Aidoneus, the king of the lower world, is said to have reigned, and to have detained here Theseus as a prisoner; and on its banks was an oracle called vfKvo/JLavrf'iov (Herod, v. 92. 7), which was con- sulted by evoking the spirits of the dead. (Thnc. i. 46 ; Liv. viii. 24 ; Strab. p. 324 ; Steph. B. s. v. ; Paus. i. 17. 5 ; Dion Cass. 1. 12 ; Scylax, p. 11 ; Ptolem. iii. 14. 5 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 232, seq. iv. p. 53.) 2. A river of Elis, a tributary of the Alpheius. (Strab. p. 344; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 89.) A'CHERON ('Axe/wiO, a small river in Brut- tium, near Pandosia. Its name is mentioned in conjunction with that city both by Strabo and Justin, from whom we learn that it was on its banks that Alexander, king of Epirus, fell in battle against the Lucanians and Bruttians, B. c. 326. (Strab. p. 256 ; Justin, xii. 2.) Pliny also men- tions it as a river of Bruttium (iii. 5. s. 10.), but appears erroneously to connect it with the town of Acherontia in Lucania. It has oeen supposed to be a small stream, still called the Arconti, which falls into the river Crathis just below Consentia; but its identification must depend upon that of Pandosia. [PANDOSIA.] [E. H. B.] ACHERO'NTIA ('A X epovTis or 'Axeporrlci), a small town of Apulia, near the frontiers of Lucania r situated about 14 miles S. of Venusia, and 6 SE. of Ferentum. Its position on a lofty hill is alluded to. by Horace in a well-known passage (celsae nidum Acherontiae, Carm. iii. 4. 14 ; and Acron ad loc.}, and the modern town of Acerenza retains the site as well as name of the ancient one. It is built on a hill of considerable elevation, precipitous on three sides, and affording only a very steep approach on the fourth. (Romanelh\ vol. ii. p. 238.) It seems to have been always but a small town, and is not men- tioned by any ancient geographer; but the strength of its position gave it importance in a military point of view: and during the wars of the Goths against the generals of Justinian, it was occupied by Totila with a garrison, and became one of the chief strong- holds of the Gothic leaders throughout the contest. (Procop. de B. G. iii. 23, 26, iv. 26, 33.) The read- ing Acherunto in Livy (ix. 20), which has been adopted by Romanelli and Cramer, and considered to refer to the same place, is wholly unsupported by authority. (Alschefski, ad loc.) The coins assigned to this city belong to AQUILONIA. [E. H. B.] ACHERU'SIA PALUS (' 'Axepove was the lake in Thesprotia, through which the Acheron flowed, [ ACHERON.] There was a small lake of c2 20 ACHERUSIA PALUS. this name near Ilermione in Argolis. (Paus. ii. 35. 10.) ACHERU'SIA PALUS ('Axepowrfe Ai>7j), the name given to a small lake or saltwater pool in Cam- pania separated from the sea only by a bar of sand, betweenCumae andCapeMisenunijnowcalledjLa^o di Fusaro. The name appears to have been bestowed on it (probably by the Greeks of Cumae) in consequence of its proximity to Avernus, when the legends con- necting that lake with the entrance to the infernal regions had become established. [AVERNUS.] On this account the name was by some applied to the Lucrine lake, while Artemidorus maintained that the Acherusian lake and Avernus were the same. (Strab. v. pp. 243, 245 ; Plin.iii. 5. s. 9.) TheXa^o di Fusaro could never have had any direct connection with the volcanic phenomena of the region, nor could it have partaken of the gloomy and mysterious character of Lake Avernus. The expressions applied to it by Lycophron (Alex. 695) are mere poetical hyperbole: and Virgil, where he speaks of tenebrosa palus Acheronte refuso (Aen. vi. 107), would seem to re- fer to Avernus itself rather than to the kke in ques- tion. In later times, its banks were adorned, in com- mon with the neighbouring shores of Baiae, with the villas of wealthy Romans ^ one of these, which be- longed to Servilius Vatia, is particularly described by Seneca (Ep. 55). [E. H. B.] ACHE'TUM. [ACHERINI.] ACHILLA, ACHOLLA, or ACHULLA ('AxoA- Aa : Eth. 'AxoAAcuos, Achillitanus : ElAliah, large Ru.), a town on the sea-coast of Africa Propria (Byzacena), a little above the N. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis, and about 20 G. miles S. of Thapsus. It was a colony from the island of Melita (Malta), the people of which were colonists from Carthage. Under the Romans, it was a free city. In the African war, B. c. 46, it submitted to Caesar, for whom it was held by Messius ; and it was in vain besieged by the Pompeian commander Considius. Among its ruins, of a late style, but very extensive, there has been found an interesting bilingual in- scription, in Phoenician and Latin, in which the name is spelt Achulla (Steph. B. s. v. ; Strab. p. 831; Liv. xxxiii. 48; Appian. Pun. 94; Hirtius, Bett.Afric.33 43; Plin. v.4; Ptol.; Tab.Peut., name corrupted into Anolla; Shaw's Travels, p. 193 ; Barth, Wanderungen, tfc. vol. i. p. 176; Gesenius, Monum. Phoenic. p. 139.) [P. S.] ACHILLE'OS DROMOS (Apopos 'AxtAATjos, or 'AxtAAews, or 'AxtAAetos, or 'Ax'AA^ioj), a long narrow strip of land in the Euxine, NW. of the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea') and S. of the mouth of the Borysthenes (Dnieper), running W. and E., with a slight inclination N. and -S., for about 80 miles, including that portion of the coast from which it is a prolongation both ways. It is now divided by a narrow gap, which insulates its W. portion, into two parts, called Kosa (i. e. tongue) Tendra on the W., and Kosa Djarilyatch on the E. In the ancient legends, which connected Achilles with the NW. shores of the Euxine, this strip of land was pitched upon as a sort of natural stadium on which he might have exercised that swiftness of foot which Homer sings ; and he was supposed to have instituted games there. Further to the W., off the mouth of the Ister, lay a small island, also sacred to the hero, who had a temple there. This island, called Achillis In- sula, or Leuce ('Ax'AAews ^ Aeu/cr) PTJO-OS), was said to be the place to which Thetis transported the body of Achilles. By some it was made the abode of the ACINIPO. shades of the blest, where Achilles and other heroes were the judges of the dead. Geographers identify it with the little island of Zmievoi, or Oulan Adassi (i. e. Serpents' Island) in 30 10' E long., 45 15' N. lat. (Herod, iv. 55, 76; Eurip. Iphig. in Taur. 438; Pind. Olymp. ii. 85; Paus. iii. 19. 11; Strab. pp. 306 308, foil.; and other passages col- lected byUkert, vol. iii. p. 2, pp. 442, foil., and For- biger, vol. iii. pp. 11211122.) [P. S.] ACHILLE'UM ('Ax ' AAe ' OI/ ), a small town near the promontory Sigeum in the Troad (Herod, v. 94), where, according to tradition, the tomb of Achilles was. (Strab. p. 594.) When Alexander visited the place on his Asiatic expedition, B. c. 334, he placed chaplets on the tomb of Achilles. (Arrian, i. I.'.) [G.L.] AJHILLIS INSULA. [ACHILLEOS DROMOS.] ACHOLLA. [ACHILLA.] ACHRADU'S. [ACHERDUS.] ACHRIS, or A'CHRITA. [LYCHNIDUS.] A'CILA ('A/c-Aa), which seems to be identical with OCE'LIS (*0/cr?Ajs), now Zee Hill or Gkela, a seaport of the Sabaei Nomades, in Arabia Felix, a short distance to the S. of Mocha, and to the N. of the openi::g of the strait of Babel Mandeb. (Strab. p. 769; Plin. vi. 23. s. 26, 28. s. 32; Ptol. vi. 7. 7.) By some geographers it is identified with the BouAj/cds of the Homeritae mentioned by Procopius (B.P.L 19). [W.R.] ACIMINCUM, ACUMINCUM ('A/co^ry/co^, Ptol. ii. 16. 5 : Alt-Salankemeri), a station or per- manent cavalry barrack in Pannonia. (Amm. Marc, xix. 11. 7 ; Notit. Imp.) By George of Ravenna (iv. 19), and on the Peutingerian Table, the name is written ACUNUM. [W. B. D.] ACINCUM, AQUINCUM ('AKowyKov, Ptol. ii. 16. 4; Tab. Peut.; Orelli, Inscript. 506, 959, 963, 3924; Amm. Marc. xxx. 5; Itin. Anton.), a Roman colony and a strong fortress in Pannonia, where the legion Adjutrix Secunda was in garrison (Dion. Cass. Iv. 24), and where also there was a large manufactory of bucklers. Acincum, being the centre of the operations on the Roman frontier against the neighbouring lazyges (Slovdcs), was occasionally the head-quarters of the emperors. It answers to the present Alt-Buda, where Roman base- ments and broken pillars of aqueducts are still visible. On the opposite bank of the Danube, and within the territory of the lazyges, stood a Roman fort or outpost called, from its relative position, Contra- Acincum (Not. Imp.), which was connected with Acincum by a bridge. Contra- Acincum is named IIeWioj> by Ptolemy (iii. 7. 2). [W. B. D.] ACI'NIPO ('A/ctvi7r7rco : Honda la, Vieja, Eu. 2 leagues N. of Rondo), a town of Hispania Baetica, on a lofty mountain. Ptolemy calls it a city of the Celtici (ii. 4. 15.) Its site is marked by the ruins of an aqueduct and a theatre, amidst which many coins are found inscribed with the name of the place. (Florez, Esp. Sagr. vol. ix. pp. 1660; Eckhel, vol. i. p. 14.) [P. S.] COIX OF ACLXIFO. ACIR1S. ACIRIS ("AKipu), a river of Lucania, mentioned l>oth l>y Pliny and Strabo, as flowing near to 1I<>- raclea on the N. side, as the Siris did on the S. It is still called the Acri or Agri, and has a course of above 50 miles, rising in the Apennines near Marsico Nuovo, and flowing into the Gulf of Ta- rcntuni, a little to the N. of Policoro, the site of the ancient Heraclea. (Plin. iii. 11. s. 15 ; Strab. p. 264.) The Acimos of the Itinerary is supposed by Cluverius to be a corruption of this name, but it would appear to be that of a town, rather than a river. (Itin. Ant. p. 104.) [E. H. B.] ACIS (*A/m), a river of Sicily, on the eastern coast of the island, and immediately at the foot of Aetna. It is celebrated on account of the mytho- logical fable connected with its origin, which was ascribed to the blood of the youthful Acis, crushed under an enormous rock by his rival Polyphemus. (Ovid. Met. xiii. 750, &c.; Sil. Ital. xiv. 221 226; Antli. Lat. i. 148 ; Serv. ad Virg. Ed. ix. 39, who erroneously writes the name Acim'us.) It is evi- dently in allusion to the same story that Theocritus speaks of the " sacred waters of Acis." ("AwtSos itpbv v8o>p, Idyll, i. 69.) From this fable itself we may infer that it was a small stream gushing forth from under a rock; the extreme coldness of its waters noticed by Solinus (Solin. 5. 17) also points to the same conclusion. The last circum- stance might lead us to identify it with the stream now called Fiume Freddo, but there is every ap- pearance that the town of Acium derived its name from the river, and this was certainly further south. There can be no doubt that Cluverius is right in identifying it with the little river still called Fiume di Jaci, known also by the name of the Acque Grandi, which rises under a rock of lava, and has a very short course to the sea, passing by the modern town of Aci Reale (Acium). The Acis was certainly quite distinct from the Acesines or Asines, with which it has been confounded by several writers. (Cluver. Sicil. p. 115; Smyth's Sicily, p. 132 ; Ortolani, Diz. Geogr. p. 9 ; Ferrara, JJescriz. deW Etna, p. 32.) [E. H. B.] A'CIUM, a small town on the E. coast of Sicily, mentioned only in the Itinerary (Itin. Ant. p 87), which places it on the high road from Catana to Tauromenium, at the distance of 9 M. P. from the former city. It evidently derived its name from the little river Acis, and is probably identical with the modem Aci Reale, a considerable town, about a mile from the sea, in the neighbourhood of which, (in the road to Catania, are extensive remains of Koman Thermae. (Biscari, Viaggio in Sicilia, p. 22 ; Ortolani, Diz. Geogr. p. 9.) [E. H. B.] ACMO'NIA ('A.K(j.ovia: Eth. 'AK/uomvy, 'Atfjud- vios, Acmonen.sis), a city of Phrygia, rn tioned by Cicero (Pro Place. 15.) It was on the /oad from Dorylaeum to Philadelphia, 36 Koman miles S\V. of Cotyaeum; and under the Romans belonged to the Conventus Juridicus of Apamea. The site has been fixvd at Ahatkoi; but it still seems doubtful. (Ha- milton, Iff searches, tf-c. vol. i. p. 115.) [G. L.] ACRAE. 21 COIX OF ACMONIA. ACO'NTIA or ACU'TIA ('AKoi/rfa, Strab. p. 152 ; 'AKoureia, Steph. B.), a town of the Vaccaei, in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the river Durius (Douro), which had a ford here. Its site is unknown. [P. S. ] ACONTISMA, a station in Macedonia on the coast and on the Via Egnatia, 8 or 9 miles eastward of Neapolis, is placed by Leake near the end of the passes of the Sapaei, which were formed by the mountainous coast stretching eastward from Kavdla. Tafel considers it to bo identical with Christopolis and the modern Kavdla. (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 4; It. Ant. and Hierocl. ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 180; Tafel, De Viae Egnatiae Parte Orient. p. 13, seq.) A'CORIS ('A/copt's), a town of Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile in the Cynopolite Nome, 17 miles N. of Antinoopolis. (Ptol. iv. 5. 59 ; Tab. Petit.) AGRA LEUCE ("A/cpo Aev/d?), a great city of Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by Hamilcar Barcas (Diod. Sic. xxv. 2), and probably identical with the Castrum Album of Livy (xxiv. 41). Its position seems to have been on the coast of the Sinus Ilici- tanus, N. of Ilici, near the modern Alicante (Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 403). [P.S.] ACRAE fA/cpai, Thuc. et alii; "A^pa, Steph. B.; "Anpaiai, Ptol.; 'Afcpeuol, Steph. B.; Acren- ses, Ph'n. ; Palazzolo), a city of Sicily, situated in the southern portion of the island, on a lofty hill, nearly due W. of Syracuse, from which it was distant, according to the Itineraries, 24 Roman miles (Itin. Ant. p. 87 ; Tab. Peut.). It was a colony of Syra- cuse, founded, as we learn from Thucydides, 70 years after its parent city, t. e. 663 B. c. (Thuc. vi. 5), but it did not rise to any great importance, and con- tinued almost always in a state of dependence on Syracuse. Its position must, however, have always given it some consequence in a military pint of view; and we find Dion, when marching upon Syra- cuse, halting at Acrae to watch the effect of his pro- ceedings. (Pint. Dion, 27, where we should certainly read "Affpas for Ma/cpas.) By the treaty concluded by the Romans with Hieron, king of Syracuse, Acrae was included in the dominions of that monarch (Diod. xxiii. Exc. p. 502), and this was probably the period of its greatest prosperity. During the Second Punic War it followed the fortunes of Syracuse, and afforded a place of refuge to Hippocrates, after his defeat by MarceHus at Acrillae, B.C. 214. (Liv. xxiv. 36.) This is the last mention of it in history, and its name is not once noticed by Cicero. It was probably in his time a me~3 dependency of Syracuse, though it is found in Pliny's list of the " stipendiariae civitates," so that it must then have possessed a separate muni- 'pal existence. (Plin. iii. 8 ; Ptol. iii. 4. 14.) The site of Acrae was correctly fixed by Fazello at the modern Palazzolo, the lofty and bleak situation of which corresponds with the description of Silius Italicus ("tumuh's glacialibus Acrae," xiv. 206), and its distance from Syracuse with that assigned by the Itineraries. The summit of the hill occupied by the modern town is said to be still called Acremonte. Fazello speaks of the nuns visible there as " egregium urbis cadaver," and the recent researches and excava- tions carried on by the Baron Judica have brought to light ancient remains of much interest. The most considerable of these are two theatres, both in very fair preservation, of which the largest is turned to- wards the N., while immediately adjacent to it on the W. is a much smaller one, hollowed out in great part from the rock, and supposed from some pecu- liarities in its construction to have been intended to C3 22 ACRAE. serve as an Odeum, or theatre for music. Numerous other architectural fragments, attesting the existence of temples and other buildings, have also been brought to light, as well as statues, pedestals, inscriptions, and other minor relics. On an adjoining hill are great numbers of tombs excavated in the rock, while on the hill of Acremonte itself are some monuments of a singular character; figures as large as life, hewn in relief in shallow niches on the surface of the native rock. As the principal figure in all these sculptures appears to be that of the goddess Isis, they must be- long to a late period. (Fazell. de Reb. Sic. vol. i. p. 452 ; Serra di Falco, Antichita di Sicilia, vol. iv. p. 158, seq. ; Judica, Antichita diAcre.) [E.H.B.] ACRAE ( v A/fpcu), a town in Aetolia of uncer- tain site, on the road from Metapa to Conope. Stephanus erroneously calls it an Acamanian town. (Pol. v. 13; Steph. B. s. v. *A/cpa.) ACRAEA ('Attpata), a mountain in Argolis, op- posite the Heraeum, or great temple of Hera. (Paus. ii. 17. 2; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 393, Pelopon- nesiaca, p. 263.) ACRAE'PHIA, ACRAEPHIAE, ACRAE- PHIUM, ACRAEPHNIUM ('A/cpa^a, Steph. B. s. v.-, Herod, viii. 135, Acraephia, Liv. xxxiii. 29; Plin. iv. 7. s. 12 ; 'A/cpaios, 'AKpotfwiTTjj), a town in the peninsula of Acte, in Chalcidice in Macedonia, situated near the extremity of the peninsula, probably upon the site of the mo- dern Lavra. Strabo, Pliny, and Mela seem to have supposed that Acrothoum stood upon the site of Mt. Athos ; but this is an impossibility. [Axuos.] It \vas stated by Mela and other ancient writers that the inhabitants of Acrothoi lived longer than ordi- nary men. Mannert and others erroneously suppose Acrothoi to have been the same place as the later Uranopolis. (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 149.) ACTE' ('A/CTTJ), signified a piece of land running into the sea, and attached to another larger piece of land, but not necessarily by a narrow neck. Thus Herodotus gives the name of Acte to Asia Minor as compared with the rest of Asia (iv. 38), and also to Africa itself as jutting out from Asia (iv. 41). Attica also was originally called Acte. (Steph. B. *. v.) [ATTICA.] The name of Acte, however, was more specifically apph'ed to the easternmost of the three promontories jutting out from Chalcidice in Macedonia, on which Mt. Athos stands. It is spoken of under ATHOS. A'CTIUM ("A/mor: Eth. "AKTIOS, Actius: Adj. 'AKTJOK^S, Actiacus, also "AKTIOS, Actius), a pro- montory in Acarnania at the entrance of the Am- braciot Gulf (Gulf of Aria) off which 'Augustus gained his celebrated victory over Antony and Cleopatra, on September 2nd, B. c. 31. There was a temple of Apollo on this promontory, which Thucydides mentions (i. 29) as situated in the territory of Anactorium, This temple was of great antiquity, and Apollo derived from it the surname of Actius and Actiacus. There was also an ancient festival named Actia, celebrated here in honour of the god. Augustus after his victory enlarged the .temple, and revived the ancient festival, which was henceforth celebrated once in four years (irei'Toe- TTjpfs, ludi quinquennales), with musical and gym- nastic contests, and horse races. (Dion Cass. Ii. 1 ; Suet. Aug. 18.) We learn from a Greek inscription found on the site of Actium, and which is probably prior to the tune of Augustus, that the chief priest of the temple was called 'lepcnroAos, and that his name was employed in official documents, like that of the first Archon at Athens, to mark the date. (Bockh, Corpus Inscript. No. 1793.) Strabo says (p. 325) that the temple was situated on an eminence, and that below was a plain with a grove of trees, and a dock-yard; and in another passage (p. 451) he describes the harbour as situated out- side of the gulf. On the opposite coast of Epirus, Augustus founded the city of Nicopolis in honour of his victory. [NicOFOLis.] Actium was pro- perly not a town, though it is sometimes described as such; but after the foundation of Nicopolis, a few buildings sprang up around the temple, and it served as a kind of suburb to Nicopolis. The site of Actium has been a subject of dispute. The accompanying plan of the entrance of the Ambraciot gulf, taken from the map published by Lieut. Wolfe (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. iii.) will give the reader a clear idea of the locality. ACTIUM. s X 1 -wSu < ^-, - J) '^ PLAN OF ACTIUM. 1. Ruins of Prevesa. 2. C. Z,a Scaro. 3. Prom. Actium. La Punta. 4. C. Madonna. 5. Temple of Apollc Fort La Punta. 6. Azio. 7. Anactorium. 8. Vonitza. P. Bay of Prevesa. The entrance of the Ambraciot gulf lies between the low point off Acarnania, on which stands Fort La Punta (5), and the promontory of Epirus, on which stands the modern town of Prevesa (1), near the site of the ancient Nicopolis. The nar- rowest part of this entrance is only 700 yards, but the average distance between the two shores is half a mile. After passing through this strait, the coast turns abruptly round a small point to the SE., forming a bay about 4 miles in width, called the Bay of Prevesa (P). A second entrance is then formed to the larger basin of the gulf by the two high capes of La Scara (2) in Epeirus, and of Madonna (4) in Acarnania, the width of this second entrance being about one mile and a half. Now some modern writers, among others D'Anville, suppose Actium to have been situated on Cape Madonna, and Anactorium, which Strabo (p. 451) describes as 40 stadia from Actium, on La Punta. Two reasons have led them to adopt this conclusion : first, because the ruins on C. Madonna are some- times called Azw (6), which name is apparently a corruption of the ancient Actium; and, secondly, because the temple of Apollo is said by Strabo to have stood on a height, which description answers to the rocky eminence on C. Madonna, and not to the low peninsula of La Punta. But these reasons are not conclusive, and there can be no doubt that the site of Actium corresponds to La Punta. For it should be observed, first, that the name Azio is unknown to the Greeks, and appears to have been introduced by the Venetians, who conjectured that the ruins on C. Madonna were those of Actium, and therefore invented the word ; and, secondly, that though Strabo places the temple of Apollo on a height, he does not say that this height was on the sea, but on the contrary, that it was at some little distance from the sea. In other respects Strabo's evidence is decisive in favour of the identification of Actium with La Punta. He says that Actium is one point which forms the entrance of the bay; and it is clear that he considered the entrance of the bay to be between Prevesa and La Punta, because he makes the breadth of the strait " a little more than four stadia," or half a mile, which is true- when applied to the first narrow entrance, but not to the second. That the strait between Prevesa and La Punta was regarded as the entrance of tho Ambraciot gulf, is clear, not only from the distant o assigned to it by Strabo, but from the statements of c 4 24 ADADA. Polybius (iv. 63), who makes it 5 stadia, of Scylax (v. Kao"(TW7roi), who makes it 4 stadia, and of Pliny (iv. 1) who makes it 500 paces. Anactorium is described by Strabo as "situated within the bay," while Actium makes " the mouth of the bay." (Strab. pp. 325, 451.) Anactorium, therefore, must be placed on the promontory of C. Madonna. [For its exact site, see ANACTORIUM.] The testi- mony of Strabo is confirmed by that of Dion Cassius. The latter writer says (1. 12) that " Actium is a temple of Apollo, and is situated before the mouth of the strait of the Ambraciot gulf, over against the harbours of Nicopolis." Cicero tells us (ad'Fam. xvi. 6, 9) that in coasting from Patrae to Corcyra he touched at Actium, which he could hardly have done, if it were so far out of his way as the inner strait between C. La Scara and C. Madonna. Thus we come to the conclusion that the promontory of Actium was the modern La Punta (3), and that the temple of Apollo was situated a little to the S., outside the strait, probably near the Fort La Punta (5). A few remarks are necessary respecting the site of the battle, which has conferred its chief celebrity upon Actium. The fleet of Antony was stationed in the Bay cf Prevesa (P). His troops had built towers on each side of the mouth of the strait, and they occupied the channel itself with their ships. Their camp was near the temple of Apollo, on a level spacious ground. Augustus was encamped on the opposite coast of Epirus, on the spot where Nicopolis afterwards stood; his fleet appears to have be5n stationed in the Bay of Gomaros, now the harbour of Mitika, to the N. of Nicopolis, hi the Ionian sea. Antony was absent from his army at Patrae; but as soon as he heard of the arrival of Augustus, he proceeded to Actium, and after a short time crossed over the strait to Prevesa, and pitched his camp near that of Augustus. But having experienced some misfortunes, he subse- quently re-crossed the strait and joined the main body of his army at Actium. By the advice of Cleopatra he now determined to return to Egypt. He accordingly sailed out of the strait, but was compelled by the manoeuvres of Augustus to fight. After the battle had lasted some hours Cleopatra, who was followed by Antony, sailed through the middle of the contending fleets, and took to flight. They succeeded in making their escape, but most of their ships were destroyed. The battle was, therefore, fought outside of the strait, between La Punta and Prevesa (ew T&V (TTGVWV, Dion Cass. 1. 31), and not in the Bay of Prevesa, as is stated by some writers. (Dion Cass. 1. 12, seq.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 28, seq.; Wolfe, I. c.) A'DADA ("ASoSa: Eth. 'ASaSeus, Ptol.; 'A8a- Sarrj in old edit, of Strabo; 'O8d5a, Hierocl.), a town in Pisidia of uncertain site. On coins of Va- lerian and Gallienus we find AAAAEHN. Adada is mentioned in the Councils as the see of a bishop. (Artemiod. ap. Strab. xii. p. 570; Ptol. v. 5. 8; Hierocl. p. 674, with Wesseling's note.) A'DANA (TO "ASava: Eth. 'ASoi/evs), a town of Cilicia, which keeps its ancient name, on the west side of the Sarus, now the Syhoon or Syhdn. It lay on the military road from Tarsus to Issus, in a fertile country. There are the remains of a portico. Pompey settled here some of the Cilician pirates whom he had compelled to submit. (Appian, Mith. 96.) Dion Cassius (xlvii. 31) speaks of Tarsus and Adana being always quarrelling. [G. L.] ADRAA. ADANE ('ASairj, Philostorg. H. E. iii. 4), called ATHANA by Pliny (vi. 28. s. 32), and ARABIA FELIX ('Apam eitSalfuov), in the Periplus of Arrian (p. 14), now Aden, the chief seaport in the country of Homeritae on the S. coast of Arabia. It became at a very early period the great mart for the trade between Egypt, Arabia, and India; and although destroyed by the Romans, probably by Aelius Gallus in his expedition against Arabia, in the reign of Augustus, it speedily revived, and has ever since remained a place of note. It has revived conspicuously within the last few years, having fallen into the possession of the English, and become one of the stations for the steamers which navigate the Red Sea. [W. R.] A'DDUA (o 'ASotJas: Adda), a river of Gallia Cisalpina, one of the largest of the tributaries which bring down the waters of the Alps to the Po. It rises in the Rhaetian Alps near Bormio, and flows through the Valtelline, into the Lacus Larius or Logo di Como, from which it again issues at its south- eastern extremity near Lecco, and from thence has a course of above 50 miles to the Po, which it joins between Placentia and Cremona. During this latter part of its course it seems to have formed the limit between the Insubres and the Cenomani. It is a broad and rapid stream : the clearness of its blue waters, re- sulting from their passage through a deep lake, is alluded to by Claudian \De VI. Cons. Hon. 196). Strabo erroneously places its sources in MX. ADUL.A, where, according to him, the Rhine also rises : it is probable that he was imperfectly acquainted with this part of the Alps, and supposed the stream which descends from the Spliigen to the head of the lake of Como to be the original Addua, instead of the much larger river which enters it from the Val- telline. (Strab. iv. pp. 192,204; v. p. 213; Plin. iii. 16. s. 20; Pol. ii. 32, xxxiv. 10; TM. Hist, ii. 40.) [E. H. B.] ADIABE'NE ('ASia&j^). [ASSYRIA.] ADIS or ADES ('A5ts, "ASys : prob. Rhades),* considerable city of Africa, on the Gulf of Tunis, in the Carthaginian territory, which Regulus besieged and took, and before which he defeated the Cartha- ginians, in the 10th year of the first Punic War, B. c. 255. (Pol. i. 30.) As there is no subsequent mention of the place, it is supposed to have been supplanted, or at least reduced to insignificance, by the later town of MAXULA. [P. S.] ADO'NIS CA5&VM: Nahr el Ibrahim), a small river of Syria, which rising in Mount Libanus enters the Mediterranean a few miles to the S. of Byblus. Maundrell records the fact which he himself wit- nessed, that after a sudden fall of rain, the river descending in floods is tinged of a deep red by the soil of the hills hi which it takes its rise, and imparts this colour to the sea for a considerable distance. Hence some have sought to explain the legend of the beautiful Adonis, who was killed by a wild boar on Mount Libanus (Strab. p. 755; Lucian, de Dea Syr. 6; Plin. v. 20.; Norm. Dionys. iii. 80, xx. 144.) [W.R.] ADOREUS, the name of a mountain of Galatia, now Elmah Dagh, in the neighbourhood of Pessinus, in Asia. Livy (xxxviii. 18.) says that it contains the source of the river Sangarius. [G. L.] ADORSI. [AORSI.] ADRAA (ASpda, Euseb. Onomast. : "ASpa. Ptol. v. 15. 23 : LXX. 'EfyaeiV, 'ESpaiv : Eng.'Vers. EDREI : and probably the 'ASpatra-os of Hierocles, p. 273 : Draa), a town in Palestine, near the sources ADRAISTAE. of the river Hieromax, and deeply embayed in the spurs of the mountain chain of Hcrmon. Before the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, it was one of the chief cities of Og, king of Bashan. After his defeat and death it was assigned to the half tribe of Ma- nassch, \vliidi settled nn the eastern side of Jordan. It was the seat of a Christian bishop at an early time, and a bishop of Ad ran sat in the council of Seleucia ( \ . i >. ;58 1 ), and of Chalcedon (A. D. 45 1 ). By the v 'ASpiav &oAaTTa,etc. (See Schweighauser's Index to Polybius, p. 197.) 28 ADRIATICUM MARE. Ionian Gulf, the sea without that entrance, previously known as the Ionian or Sicilian, came to be called the Adriatic Sea. The beginning of this altera- tion may already be found in Strabo, who speaks of the Ionian Gulf as a part of the Adriatic: but it is found fully developed in Ptolemy, who makes the promontory of Garganus the limit between the Adri- atic Gulf (6 'ASpias KoATros) and the Ionian Sea (jo 'luviov Tre'Acryos), while he calls the sea which bathes the eastern shores of Bruttium and Sicily, the Adriatic Sea (rd 'ASpicm/cov TreAtryos): and although the later geographers, Dionysius Periegetes and Agathemerus, apply the name of the Adriatic within the same limits as Strabo, the common usage of historians and other writers under the Roman Empire is in conformity with that of Ptolemy. Thus we find them almost uniformly speaking of the Ionian Gulf for the lower part of the modern Adri- atic : while the name of the latter had so completely superseded the original appellation of the Ionian Sea for that which bathes the western shores of Greece, that Philostratus speaks of the isthmus of Corinth as separating the Aegaean Sea from the Adriatic. And at a still later period we find Procopius and Orosius still further extending the appellation as far as Crete on the one side, and Malta on the other. (Ptol. iii. 1. 1, 10, 14, 17, 26, 4. 1, 8; Dionys. Per. 92 94, 380, 481 ; Agathemer. i. 3, ii. 14; Appian, Syr. 63, B. C. ii. 39, iii. 9, v. 65; Dion Cass. xli. 44, xlv. 3 ; Herodian. viii. 1 ; Phi- lostr. Imagg. ii. 16; Pausan. v. 25. 3, viii. 54. 3; Hieronym. Ep. 86; Procop. B. G. i. 15, iii. 40, iv. 6, B. V. i. 13, 14, 23; Oros. i. 2.) Concerning the various fluctuations and changes in the applica- tion and signification of the name, see Larcher's Notes on Herodotus (vol. i. p. 157, Eng. transl.), andLetronne(-RecAercAes surDicuil. p. 170 218), who has, however, carried to an extreme extent the distinctions he attempts to establish. The general form of the Adriatic Sea was well known to the an- cients, at least in the time of Strabo, who correctly describes it as long and narrow, extending towards the NW., and corresponding in its general dimen- sions with the part of Italy to which it is parallel, from the lapygian promontory to the mouths of the Padus. He also gives its greatest breadth pretty correctly at about 1200 stadia, but much overstates its length at 6000 stadia. Agathemerus, on the contrary, while he agrees with Strabo as to the breadth, assigns it only 3000 stadia in length, which is as much below the truth, as Strabo exceeds it. (Strab. ii. p. 123, v. p. 211; Agathemer. 14.) The Greeks appear to have at first regarded the neigh- bourhood of Adria and the mouths of the Padus as the head or inmost recess of the gulf, but Strabo and Ptolemy more justly place its extremity at the gulf near Aquileia and the mouth of the Tilavemptus (Tagllamento). (Strab. ii. p. 123, iv. p. 206 ; Ptol. iii. 1. 1, 26.) The navigation of the Adriatic was much dreaded on account of the frequent and sudden storms to which it was subject : its evil character on this ac- count is repeatedly alluded to by Horace. (Carm. i. 3. 15, 33. 15, ii. 14. 14, iii. 9. 23, &c.) There is no doubt that the name of the Adriatic was derived from the Etruscan city of Adria or Atria, near the mouths of the Padus. Livy, Pliny, and Strabo, all concur in this statement, as well as in extolling the ancient power and commercial in- fluence of that city [ ADKIA, No. 1 ] , and it is pro- bably only by a confusion between the two cities of ADULA MONS. the same name, that some later writers have derived the appellation of the sea from Adria in Piceauin, which was situated at some distance from the coast, and is not known to have been a place of any im- portance in early times. [E. H. B.] ADRUME'TUM. [HADRUMETUM.] ADRUS (Albaragena), a river of Hispania Lusi- tanica, flowing from the N. into the Anas (Guadi- ana) opposite toBadajoz (Itin. Ant. p. 418; Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1, pp. 289392). [P. S.] ADUA'TICA or ADUA'TUCA, a castellum or fortified place mentioned by Caesar (B. G. vi. 32) as situated about the centre of the country of the Eburones, the greater part of which country lay between the Mosa (3/aas) and the Rhenus. There is no further indication of its position in Caesar. Q. Cicero, who was posted here with a legion in B. c. 53, sustained and repelled a sudden attack of the Sigambri (-B. G. vi. 35, &c.), in the same camp in which Titurius and Aurunculeius had wintered in B. c. 54 (B. G. v. 26). If it be the same place as the Aduaca Tungrorum of the Antonine Itinerary, it is the modern Tongern, in the Belgian province of Limburg, where there are remains of old walls, and many antiquities. Though only a castellum or temporary fort in Caesar's time, the place is likely enough to have been the site of a larger town at a later date. [G. L.] ADUA'TICI ('ArovaTiKoi, Dion Cass.), a peo- ple of Belgic Gaul, the neighbours of the Eburones and Nervii. They were the descendants of 6000 Cimbri and Teutones, who were left behind by the rest of these barbarians on their march to Italy, for the purpose of looking after the baggage which their comrades could not conveniently take with them. After the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutones, near Aix by C. Marius (B. c. 102), and again in the north of Italy, these 6000 men maintained them- selves in the country. (Caes. B. G. ii. 29.) Their head quarters were a strong natural position on a steep elevation, to which there was only one ap- proach. Caesar does not give the place a name, and no indication of its site. D'Anville supposes that it is Falais on the Mehaigne. The tract occupied by the Aduatici appears to be in South Brabant. When their strong position was taken by Caesar, 4000 of the Aduatici perished, and 53,000 were sold for slaves. (B. G. ii. 33.) [G. L.] ADU'LA MONS (6 'ASowAas), the name given to a particular group of the Alps, in which, accord- ing to the repeated statement of Strabo, both the Rhine and the Addua take their rise, the one flowing northwards, the other southward into the Larian Lake. Tin's view is not however correct, the real source of the Addua being in the glaciers of the Rhaetian Alps, at the head of the Valtelline, while both branches of the Rhine rise much farther to the W. It is probable that Strabo considered the river which descends from the Splugen to the head of the lake of Como (and which flows from N. to S.) as the true Addua, overlooking the greatly superior magnitude of that which comes down from the Val- telline. The sources of this river are in fact not far from those of the branch of the Rhine now called the Hinter Rhein, and which, having the more direct course from S. to N., was probably regarded by the ancients as the true origin of the river. Mt. Adula would thus signify the lofty mountain group about the passes of the Splugen and S. Bernardino, and at the head of the valley of the Hinter Rhein, rather than the Mt. St. Gothard, as supposed by most ADULE. modern geographers, but we must not expect great accuracy in the use of the term. Ptolemy, who also represents the Rhine as rising in Alt. Adula, says nothing of the Addua; but erroneously describes this part of the Alps as that where the chain alters its main direction from N.to E. (Strab.iv.pp. 192, 204, v. p. 213; Ptol. ii. 9. 5, iii. 1. 1.) [E. H. B.] ADU'LE or ADU'LIS ('ASo^Ar?, Ptol. iv. 7. 8, viii. 16. 11; Arrian. Peripl; Eratosth. pp. 2, 3; "ASouAiy, Steph. B. s. v.; 'ASouAci, Joseph. Antiq. ii. 5; Procop. B. Pers. i. 19; oppidum adouliton, 1'liii. //. N. vi. 29. s. 34: Eth. 'ASovAfrTjs, Ptol. iv. 8; Adulita, Pliii. I c.: Adj. 'ASouAmKos), the principal haven and city of the Adulitae, a people of mixed origin in the regio Troglodytica, situated on a bay of the Red Sea called Adulicus Sinus ('A5ou- \iKbs KO\TTOS, Annesley Bay). Adule is the modern Thulla or Zulla, pronounced, according to Mr. Salt, Azook, and stands in lat. 15 35' N. Ruins are said to exist there. D'Anville, indeed, in his Map of the Red Sea, places Adule at Arkeeko on the same coast, about 22 N. of Thulla. According in- deed to Cosmas, Adule was not immediately on the coast, but about two miles inland. It was founded by fugitive slaves from the neighbouring kingdom of Egypt, and under the Romans was the haven of Axume. Adule was an emporium for hides (river- horse and rhinoceros), ivory (elephant and rhinoceros tusks), and tortoise-shell. It had also a large slave-market, and was a caravan station for the trade of the interior of Africa. The apes which the Roman ladies of high birth kept as pets, and for which they often gave high prices, came principally from Adnle. At Adule was the celebrated Monu- ,u< nlnm Adulitanum, the inscription of which, in Greek letters, was, in the 6th century of the Chris- tian era, copied by Cosmas the Indian merchant (In- dicopleustes ; see Diet, of Biog. art. Cosmas) into the second book of liis " Christian Topography." The monument is a throne of white marble, with a slab of some different stone behind it. Both throne and slab seem to have been covered with Greek cha- racters. Cosmas appears to have put two inscrip- tions into one, and thereby occasioned no little per- plexity to learned men. Air. Salt's discovery of the inscription at Axume, and the contents of the Adulitan inscription itself, show that the latter was bipartite. The first portion is in the third person, and re- cords that Ptolemy Euergetes (B. c. 247 222) received from the Troglodyte Arabs and Aethio- pians certain elephants which his father, the second king of the Macedonian dynasty, and himself, had taken hi hunting hi the region of Adule, and trained to war in their own kingdom. The second portion of the inscription is in the first person, and com- memorates the conquests of an anonymous Aethio- pian king in Arabia and Aethiopia, as far as the frontier of Egypt. Among other names, which we can identify with the extant appellations of African districts, occurs that of the most mountainous region in Abyssinia, the Semenae, or Samen, and that of a river which is evidently the Astaboras or Tacazze, 1a main tributary of the Nile. The Adulitan in- scription is printed in the works of Cosmas, in the Collect. Nov. Patr. et Script. Graec. by Mont- faucon, pt. ii. pp. 113346; in Chisull's Antiq. Asiat.- and in Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. iv. p. 245. The best commentary upon it is by Buttinann, Afus. (A/- A Iterthunuio. ii. 1. p. 105. [\V. B. D.] ADULl'TAE. [ADULE.] ADYEMA'CHIDAE ('Aa^/tax/Sai), a people of AECULAXUM. 29 N. Africa, mentioned by Herodotus as the first Libyan people W. of Egypt. (Herod, iv. 168.) Their extent was from the frontier of Egypt (that is, ac- cording to Herodotus, from the Sinus Plinthinetes (ii. 6), but according to Scylax (p. 44, Hudson), from the Canopic mouth of the Nile), to the harbour of Plynos, near the Catabathmus Major. Herodotus distinguishes them from the other Libyan tribes in the E. of N. Africa, who were chiefly nomade (iv. 191), by saying that their manners and customs resembled those of the Egyptians (iv. 168). He also mentions some remarkable usages which pre- vailed amongst them (/. c.). At a later period they are found further to the S., in the interior of Mar- marica. (Ptol.; Plin. v. 6; Sil. Ital. iii. 278, foil., ix. 223, foil.) [P. S.] AEA. [COLCHIS.] AEACE'UM. [AEGINA.] AEA'NTIUM (AKU/TKH/: Trikeri\ a promontory in Magnesia in Thessaly, forming the entrance to the Pagasaean bay. According to Ptolemy there was a town of the same name upon it. Its highest summit was called Mt. Tisaeum. (Plin. iv. 9. s. 16; Ptol. iii. 13. 16; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 397.) [TISAEUM.] AEAS. [Aous.] AEBU'RA (AlSovpa: Eth. Aigovpcuos : prob. Cuervo), a town of the Carpetani, in Hispania Tar- raconensis (Liv. xl. 30; Strab. op. Steph. B. *. v.), probably the Ai6pa of Ptolemy (ii. 6). Its name appears on coins as Aipora and Apora. (Mionnet, vol. i. p. 55, Supp. vol. i. pp. Ill, 112). [P. S.] AECAE (AI/ccu : Eth. Aecanus : Troja), a town of Apulia mentioned both by Polybius and Livy, during the military operations of Hannibal and Fabius in that country. In common with many other Apulian cities it had joined the Carthaginians after the battle of Cannae, but was recovered by Fabius Maximus in B. c. 214, though not without a regular siege. (Pol. iii. 88 ; Liv. xxiv. 20.) Pliny also enumerates the Aecani among the inland towns of Apulia (iii. 11); but its position is more clearly determined by the Itineraries, which place it on the Appian Way between Equus Tuticus and Herdonia, at a distance of 18 or 19 miles from the latter city. (Itin. Ant. p. 116; Itin. Hier. p. 610; the Tab. Peut. places it between Equus Tuticus and Luceria, but without giving the distances.) This interval exactly accords with the position of the modern city of Troja, and confirms the statements of several chroniclers of the middle ages, that the latter was founded about the beginning of the eleventh century, on the nuns of the ancient Aecae. Cluverius erroneously identified Aecae with Accadia, a village in the mountains S. of Bovino; but his error was rectified by Holstenius. Troja is an episcopal see, and a place of some con- sideration; it stands on a hill of moderate elevation, rising above the fertile plain of Puglia, and is 9 miles S. of Lucera, and 14 SW. of Foggia. (Holsten. Not. in Cluver. p. 271; Romanelli, vol. ii. p. 227; Giustiniani, Diz. Geogr. vol. ix. p. 260.) [E.H.B.] AECULA'NUM, or AECLA'NUM (AiKovXavov, Appian, Ptol. : Eth. Aeculanus, Plin. ; but the con- tracted form Aeclanus and Aeclanensis is the only one found in inscriptions: the reading Aeculanum in Cic. adAtt. xvi.2, is very uncertain : later inscrip- tions and the Itineraries write the name ECLANUM), a city of Samnium, in the territory of the Hirpini, is correctly placed by the Itinerary of Antoninus on the Via Appia, 15 Roman miles from Beneventum. (Plin. iii. 11. s. 16; Ptol. iii. 1. 71; Itin. Ant. p 30 AEDEPSUS. 120; Tab. Pent.) No mention of it is found in history during the wars of the Romans with the Samnites, though it appears to have been one of the chief cities of the Hirpini : but during the Social War (B. c. 89) it was taken and plundered by Sulla which led to the submission of almost all the neigh- bouring cities. (Appian, B. C. i. 51.) It appears to have been soon after restored: the erection of its new walls, gates, and towers being recorded by an in- scription still extant, and which probably belongs to a date shortly after the Social War. At a later period we find that part of its territory was portioned out to new colonists, probably under Octavian, but it retained the condition of a municipium (as we learn from Pliny and several inscriptions) until long afterwards. It was probably in the reign of Trajan that it acquired the rank and title of a colony which we find assigned to it in later inscriptions. (Lib Colon, pp. 210, 260; Orell. Inscr. no. 566, 3108 5020; Zumpt, de Coloniis, p. 401.) The site of Aeculanum was erroneously referred by Cluverius (Ital. p. 1203) to Frigento. Holstenius was the first to point out its true position at a place called le Grotte, about a mile from Mirabella, and close to the Taverna del Passo, on the modern high road from Naples into Puglia. Here the extensive remains of an ancient city have been found : a consi- derable part of the ancient walls, as well as ruins and foundations of Thermae, aqueducts, temples, an amphitheatre and other buildings have been disco- vered, though many of them have since perished; and the whole site abounds in coins, gems, bronzes, and other minor relics of antiquity. The inscriptions found here, as well as the situation on the Appian Way, and the distance from Benevento, clearly prove these remains to be those of Aeculanum, and attest its splendour and importance under the Roman em- pire. It continued to be a flourishing place until the 7th century, but was destroyed in A. D. 662, by the emperor Constans II. in his wars with the Lom- bards. A town arose out of its ruins, which ob- tained the name of QUINTODECIMUM from its posi- tion at that distance from Beneventum, and which continued to exist to the 1 1th century when it had fallen into complete decay, and the few remaining in- habitants removed to the castle of Mirabella, erected by the Normans on a neighbouring hill. (Holsten. Not. in Cluver. p. 273; Lupuli, Iter Venusin. pp. 74 128; Guarini, Ricerche suW antica Citta di Eclano, 4to. Napoli, 1814; Romanelli, vol. ii. pp. 323328.) [E. H. B.] AEDEPSUS (AJfS^os: Eth. AlS^ios: Lipso), a town on the NW. coast of Euboea, 160 stadia from Cynus on the opposite coast of the Opuntian Locri. It contained warm baths sacred to Hercules, which were used by the dictator Sulla. These warm baths are still found about a mile above Lipso, the site of Aedepsus. (Strab. pp. 60, 425 ; Athen. p. 73; Plut. Sull. 26, Symp. iv. 4, where Td^os is a false reading; Steph. B. s. v.; Ptol. iii. 15. 23; Plin. iv. 21 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 176; Walpole, Travels, ^c., p. 71.) AE'DUI, HE'DUI (At'SoCot, Strab. p. 186), a Celtic people, who were separated from the Sequani by the Arar (Saone'), which formed a large part of their eastern boundary. On the W. they were separated from the Bituriges by the upper course of the Ligeris (Loire), as Caesar states (.B. G. vii. 5). To the NE. were the Lingones, and to the S. the Segusiani. The Aedui Ambarri {B. G. i. 11), kinsmen of the Aedui, were on the borders AEGAE. of the Allobroges. The chief town of the Aedui in Caesar's time was Bibracte, and if we assume it to be on the site of the later town of Augusto- dunum (Auturi), we obtain probably a fixed cen- tral position in the territory of the Aedui, in the old division of Bov/rgogne. The Aedui were one of the most powerful of the Celtic nations, but before Caesar's proconsulship of Gallia, they had been brought under the dominion of the Sequani, who had invited Germans from beyond the Rhine to assist them. The Aedui had been declared friends of the Roman people before this calamity befel them; and Divitiacus, an Aeduan, went to Rome to ask for the assistance of the senate, but he returned without accomplishing the object of his mission. Caesar, on his arrival in Gaul (B. c. 58), restored these Aedui to their former indepen- dence and power. There was among them a body of nobility and a senate, and they had a great num- ber of clientes, as Caesar calls them, who appear to have been in the nature of vassals. The clientes of the Aedui are enumerated by Caesar (J5. G. vii. 75). The Aedui joined in the great rebellion against the Romans, which is the subject of the seventh book of the Gallic war (B. G. vii. 42, &c.); but Caesar reduced them to subjection. In the reign of Tiberius A. D. 21, Julius Sacrovir, a Gaul, attempted an insurrection among the Aedui and seized Augustodunum, but the rising was soon put down by C. Silius. (Tac. Ann. iii. 43 46.) The head of the commonwealth of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus. He was elected by the priests, and held his office for one year. He had the power of life and death over his people, as Caesar says, by which expression he means probably that he was supreme judge. (5. G. i. 16, vii. 33.) The clientes, or small communities dependent on the Aedui, were the Segusiani, already mentioned; the Ambivareti, who were apparently on the northern boundary of the Aedui trans Mosam, (B. G. iv. 9); and the Aulerci Brannovices [ AULERCI] . The Am- barri, already mentioned as kinsmen of the Aedui, are not enumerated among the clientes (B. G. vii. 55). One of the pagi or divisions of the Aedui was called Insubres (Liv. v. 34). Caesar allowed a body of Boii, who had joined the Helvetii in their attempt to settle themselves in Gaul, to re- main in the territory of the Aedui (B. G. i. 28). Their territory was between the Loire and the Allier, a branch of the Loire. They had a town, Gergovia (B. G. vii. 9), the site of which is un- certain; if the reading Gergovia is accepted in this passage of Caesar, the place must not be confounded with the GERGOVIA of the Arverni. [G. L.] AEGAE in Europe (Aiyal: Eth. Alyatos, Alyedrris, Aiyaievs). 1. Or AEGA (Atya), a town of Achaia, and one of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated upon the river Crathis and upon the coast, between Aegeira and Bura. It is mentioned by Homer, and was celebrated in the earliest times for ts worship of Poseidon. It was afterwards deserted >y its inhabitants, who removed to the neighbouring town of Aegeira; and it had already ceased to be one of the 12 Achaean cities on the renewal of the League in B. c. 280, its place being occupied by Ceryneia. Its name does not occur in Polybius. All traces of Aegae have disappeared, but it pro- >ably occupied the site of the Khan ofAkrata, which s situated upon a commanding height rising fron? ;he left bank of the river. Neither Strabo nor Pau- sanias mention on which bank of the Crathis it I AEGAE. stood, but it probably stood on the left bank, since the right is low and often inundated. (Horn. 11. viii. 203; Herod, i. 145; Strab. pp. 386387; Paus. vii. 25. 12; Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 394; Cur- tius, Pcloponnesos, vol. i. p. 472.) 2. A town in Emathia in Macedonia, and the burial-place of the Macedonian kings, is probably the same as Edessa, though some writers make them two different towns. [EoESSA.] 3. A town in Euboea on the western coast N. of Chalris, and a little S. of Orobiac. Strabo says that it was 120 stadia from Anthedon in Boeotia. It is mentioned by Homer, but had disappeared in the time of Strabo. It was celebrated for its wor- ship of Poseidon from the earliest times; and its temple of this god still continued to exist when Strabo wrote, being situated upon a lofty mountain. The latter writer derives the name of the Aegacan Sea from this town. Leake supposes it to have stood near Limni. (Horn. II. xiii. 21; Strab. pp. 386, 405; Steph. B. s. v.; Leake, Nortliern Greece, vol. iii. p. 275.) AEGAE in Asia, 1. (Atyoi, AfyaTai, Atyeai: Eth. Aiycuos, Alyfdrrjs ; Ayas Kola, or Kalassy), a town on the coast of Cilicia, on the north side of the bay of Issus. It is now separated from the outlet of the Pyraums (Jyhoon) by a long narrow aestuary called At/as Say. In Strabo's time (p. 676) it was a small city with a port. (Comp. Lucan, iii. 227.) AegM was a Greek town, but the origin of it is unknown. A Greek inscription of the Koman period lias been discovered there (Beaufort, Karamania, p. 299); and under the Koman dominion it was a place of some importance. Tacitus calls it Aegeae (Aim. xiii. 8.) 2. (Atyc": Eth. Aiycuos, Aiyatfvs'), an Aeolian city (Herod, i. 149), a little distance from the coast of Mysia, and in the neighbourhood of Cume and Temnus. It is mentioned by Xenophon (Ilellen. iv. 8. 5) under the name Aiyels, which Schneider has altered into Alyal. It suffered from the great earthquake, which in the time of Tiberius (A. r>. 17) desolated 12 of the cities of Asia. (Tacit. Ann. ii. 47.) [G. L.] AEGAEAE. [AEGIAE.] AEGAEUM MARE (rb Alyaiov irf\ayos, Herod, iv. 85 ; Aesch. Agam. 659 ; Strab. passim; or simply rb Alyaiov, Herod, vii. 55 ; 6 Aiycuos ire- \ayos, Herod, ii. 97), the part of the Mediterranean now called the Archipelago, and by the Turks the White Sea, to distinguish it from the Black Sea. It' was bounded on the N. by Macedonia and Thrace, on the W. by Greece and on the E. by Asia Minor. At its NE. corner it was connected with the Pro- pontis by the Hellespont. [HELLESPONTUS.] Its extent was differently estimated by the ancient writers ; but the name was generally applied to the whole sea as far S. as the islands of Crete and Khodes. Its name was variously derived by the an- cient grammarians, either from the town of Aegae in Euboea; or from Aegeus, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into it; or from Aegaea, the queen of the Amazons, who perished there ; or from Aegaeon, who was represented as a marine god living in the sea; or, lastly, from alyis, a squall, on account of its storms. Its real etymology is uncertain. Its navigation was dangerous to ancient navigators on account of its numerous islands and rocks, which occasion eddies of wind and a confused sea, and also on account of the Etesian or northerly winds, which blow with great fury, especially about the equinoxes. AEGATES. 31 To the storms of the Aegaean the poets frequently allude. Thus Horace (Carm. ii. 16): Otium divot ror/at in patenti prensus Aegaeo; and Virgil (Aen. xii. 365) : Ac velut Edoni Boreae cum spiritus alto insonat Aegaeo. The Aegaean contained numerous Elands. Of these the most numerous were in the southern part of the sea ; they were divided into two principal groups, the Cyclades, lying off the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus, and the Sporades, lying along the coasts of Curia and Ionia. [CY- CLADES; SPORADES.] In the northern part of the sea were the larger islands of Euboea, Thasos and Samothrace, and off the coast of Asia those of Samos, Chios and Lesbos. The Aegaean sea was divided into: 1. MARE THUACIUM (6 ptr)Kios it6i>ros, Horn. II. xxiii. 230; rb Qprjtttiov Trf \ayos, Herod, vii. 176; comp. Soph. Oed. R. 197), the northern part of the Aegaean, washing the shores of Thrace and Macedonia, and ex! ending as far S. as the northern coast of the island of Euboea. 2. MARE MYRTOUM (Hor. Carm. i. 1. 14; rb MvpT&ov 7reAa7os), the part of the Aegaean S. of Euboea, Attica and Argolis, which derived its name from the small island Myrtus, though others suppose it to come from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw into this sea, or from the maiden Myrto. Pliny (iv. 11. s. 18) makes the Myrtoan sea a part of the Aegaean; but Strabo (pp. 124, 323) distinguishes between the two, representing the Aegaean as terminating at the promontory Sunium in Attica. 3. MARE ICARIUM (Hor. Carm. i. 1. 15; 'Ixdpios Tr6vros, Horn. II. ii. 145; 'iKdpiov irf\ayos, Herod, vi. 95), the SE. part of the Aegaean along the coasts of Caria and Ionia, which derived its name from the island of Icaria, though according to tradition it was so called from Icarus, the son of Daedalus, having fallen into it. 4. MARE CRETICUM (rb Kp^riKbv ireXayos, Thuc.iv. 53), the most southerly part of the Aegaean, N. of the island of Crete. Strabo (I. c.), however, makes this sea, as well as the Myrtoan and Icarian, distinct from the Aegaean. ^AEGA'LEOS (Alyd\ws, Herod, viii. 90 ; rb Alydtecav opos, Thuc. ii. 19 : Skarmanga), a range of mountains in Attica, lying between the plains of Athens andEleusis, from which Xerxes witnessed the battle of Salamis. (Herod. I. c.) It ended in a promon- tory, called AMPHIALE ('A/i0joA77),opposite Salamis, from which it was distant only two stadia according to Strabo (p. 395). The southern part of this range near the coast was called CORYDAIAJS or CORY- DALLUS (Kopv8a\6s, Kopv5a\\6s) from a demus of this name (Strab. I c.), and another part, through which there is a pass from the plain of Athens into that of Eleusis, was named POECILUM (Iloi/aAoj/, Paus. i. 37. 7.) (Leake, Demi of Attica, p. 2, seq.) AEGA'TES raSULAE, the name given to a group of three small islands, lying off tie western extremity of Sicily, nearly opposite to Drepanum and Lilybaeum. The name is supposed to be derived from the Greek AlydSes, the " Goat islands ;" but this form is not found in any Greek author, and the Latin writers have universally Aegates. Silius Ita- licus also (i. 61) makes the second syllable long- 1. The westernmost of the three, which is distant about 22 G. miles from the coast of Sicily, was called HIERA ('lepa vrjffos, Ptol. Polyb. Diod".); but at a later period obtained the name of MARITIMA, from its lying so far out to sea (Itin. Marit. p. 492), and 32 AEGEIRA. is still called Maretimo. 2. The southernmost and nearest to Lilybaeum, is called, both by Ptolemy and Pliny, AEGUSA (Aiyovva) ; but the latter erroneously confounds it with Aethusa. It is the largest of the three, on which account its name was sometimes extended to the whole group (a! Ka\ovfj.evai Alyou- ffai, Pol. i. 44) ; it is now called Favignana, and has a considerable population. 3. The northern- most and smallest of the group, nearly opposite to Drepanum, is called by Ptolemy PHORBANTIA (*opaj/Tia), but is probably the same with the BUCINNA of Pliny, a name erroneously supposed by Steph. B. (5. v. BovKivva) to be that of a city of Sicily. It is now called Levanzo. (Ptol. iii. 4. 17 Plin. iii.S.s. 14; Smyth's Sicily, pp.244 247.) These islands derive an historical celebrity from the great naval victory obtained by C. Lutatius Catulus over the Carthaginians in B. c. 241, which put an end to the First Punic War. Hanno, the Carthaginian admiral, had previous to the battle taken up his station at the island of Hiera, and endeavoured to take advantage of a fair wind to ran straight in to Drepanum, in order to relieve the army of Hamilcar Barca, then blockaded on Mount Eryx; but he was intercepted by Catulus, and com- pelled to engage on disadvantageous terms. The consequence was the complete defeat of the Cartha- ginian fleet, of which 50 ships were sunk, and 70 taken by the enemy, with nearly 10,000 prisoners. (Pol. i. 60, 61; Diod. xxiv. Exc. H. p. 509; Liv. Epit. xix.; Oros. iv. 10; Flor. ii. 1; Eutrop. ii. 27; Corn. Nep. Hamilc. 1 ; Mela, ii. 7 ; Sil. Ital. i. 61.) The island of Aegusa has been supposed by many writers to be the one described by Homer in the Odyssey (ix. 116) as lying opposite to the land of the Cyclopes, and abounding in wild goats. But all such attempts to identify the localities described in the wanderings of Ulysses may be safely dismissed as untenable. [E. H. B.] AEGEIRA (Afyeipo: Eth. Alyeipdr-ns, fern. Aiyeiparis), a, town of Achaia, and one of the 12 Achaean cities, situated between Aegae and Pellene, is described by Polybius as opposite Mount Parnas- sus, situated upon hills strong and difficult of ap- proach, seven stadia from the sea, and near a river. This river was probably the Crius, which flowed into the sea, a little to the W. of the town. Ac- cording to Pausanias the upper city was 12 stadia from its port, and 72 stadia from the oracle of Heracles Buraicus. (Herod, i. 146; Strab. viii. p. 386; Pol. ii. 41, iv. 57; Paus. vii. 26. 1; Plin. iv. 6.) Pausanias (/. c.) relates that Aegeira occu- pied the site of the Homeric HYPERESIA ('TTrepTjo^, //.ii. 573, xv. 254; Strab. p. 383 : m.'TTrepjtrteus), and that it changed its name during the occupation of the country by the lonians. He adds that the ancient name still continued in use. Hence we find that Icarus of Hyperesia was proclaimed victor in the 23rd Olympiad. (Paus. iv. 15. 1.) On the decay of the neighbouring town of Aegae its inhab- itants were transferred to Aegeira. (Strab. p. 386.) In the first year of the Social war (B.C. 220) Aegeira was surprised by a party of Aetolians, who had set sail from the opposite town of Oeantheia in Locris, but were driven out by the Aegiratans after they had obtained possession of the place. (Pol. iv. 57, 58.) The most important of the public build- ings of Aegeira was a temple of Zeus. It also con- tained a very ancient temple of Apollo, and temples of Artemis, of Aphrodite Urania, who was worshipped in the town above all other divinities, and of the AEGINA. Syrian goddess. (Paus. vii.26.) The port of Aegeint Leake places at Mavra Litharia, i. e., the Black Rocks, to the left of which, on the summit of a hill, are some vestiges of an ancient city, which must have been Aegeira. At the distance of 40 stadia from Aegeira, through the mountains, there was a fortress called PHELLOE (4>eAAo77, near Zakhuli), abounding in springs of water. (Paus. vii. 26. 10; Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 387, seq.) AEGEIRUS. [AEGIROESSA.] AEGIAE or AEGAEAE (Alyiai, Paus. iii. 21. 5 ; Alyaiat, Strab. p. 364: Limni), a town of La- coma, at the distance of 30 stadia from Gythium, supposed to be the same as the Homeric Augeiae. (Avyeiai, II ii. 583; comp. Steph. B. s. v.} It possessed a temple and lake of Neptune. Its site is placed by the French Commission at Limni, so called from an extensive marsh in the valley of the eastern branch of the river of Passavd. (Leake, Pelopon- nesiaca, p. 170.) AEGIALEIA, AEGIALUS. [ACHAIA.] AE'GIDA, a town of Istria, mentioned only by Pliny iii. 19. s. 23), which appears to have been in his time a place of little importance ; but from an inscription cited by Cluverius {Ital. p. 210) it appears that it was restored by the emperor Justin II. who bestowed on it the name of JUSTI- NOPOLIS. This inscription is preserved at Capo d'lstria, now a considerable town, situated on a small island joined to the mainland by a causeway . which appears to have been termed AEGIDIS IN- SULA, and was probably the site of the Aegida of Pliny. [E. H. B.] AE'GILA (TO AfytAa), a town of Laconia with a temple of Demeter, of uncertain site, but placed by Leake on the gulf of Skutdri. (Paus. iv. 17. 1 ; Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 278.) AEGI'LIA (AtyAfa). 1. Or AEGILUS (r) AJf- 7tAos, Theocr. i. 147: Eth. Alyi\i c .6s), a demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, situated on the western coast between Lamptra and Sphettus. It was celebrated for its figs. (AryiAiSes tVxaSes, Athen. p. 652, e. ; Theocr. I c.) It is placed by Leake at Tzurela, the site of a ruined village on the shore, at the foot of Mt. Elymbo. (Strab. p. 398 ; Harpocrat., Steph. B. s. v. ; Leake, L)emi, p. 61.) 2. Or AEGILEIA (AtVAeia), a small island off the western coast of Euboea, and near the town of Styra, to which it belonged. Here the Persians left the captive Eretrians, before they crossed over to Marathon, B. c. 490. (Herod, vi. 101, 107.) 3. Or AEGILA (AfyAa : Cerigotto), a small island between Cythera and Crete. (Plut. Cleom. 31 ; Steph. B. s.v. ; Plin. iv. 12. s. 19.) AEGILIPS. [ITHACA.] AEGIMU'RUS (Aiyifjiopos : Zowamour or Zembra), a lofty island, surrounded by dangerous cliffs, off the coast of Africa, at the mouth of the gulph of Carthage. (Liv. xxx. 24; Strab. pp. 123, 277, 834.) Pliny calls it Aegimori Arae (v. 7); and there is no doubt that it is the same as the Arae of Virgil \Aen. i. 108). [P. S.] AEGI'NA (Aiyiva: Eth. Alyiv-nrns, Aegineta, Aeginensis, fern. Aryans : Adj. Aiyivaios, Aiyivr)- Tnt6s, Aegineticus : Eghina), an island in the Saronic gulf, suiTounded by Attica, Megaris, and Epidauras, from each of which it was distant about 100 stadia. (Strab. p. 375) It contains about 41 square English miles, and is said by Strabo (?. c.) to be 180 stadia in circumference. In shape it is an irregular triangle. Its western half consists of a plain, which, though AEGINA. stony, is well cultivated with corn, but the remainder of the island is mountainous and unproductive. A magnificent conical hill now called Mt. St. Julias, or Oros (opos, i. e. the mountain), occupies the whole of the southern part of the island, and is the most remarkable among the natural features of Aegina. There is another mountain, much inferior hi size, on the north-eastern side. It is surrounded by nume- rous rocks and shallows, which render it difficult and hazardous of approach, as Pausanias (ii. 29. 6) has correctly observed. Notwithstanding its small extent Aegina was one of the most celebrated islands in Greece, both hi the mythical and historical period. It is said to have been originally called Oerione or Oenopia, and to have received the name of Aegina from Aegina, the draghter of the river-god Asopus, who was carried to the island by Zeus, and there bore him a son Aeacus. It was further related that at this time Aegina was uninhabited, and that Zeus changed the ants (n-vp- /urjKes) of the island into men, the Myrmidones, over whom Aeacus ruled (Paus.ii. 29. 2.; Apollod.iii. 12. 6; Ov. Met. vii. 472, seq.) Some modern writers suppose that this legend contains a mythical account of the colonization of the island, and that the latter received colonists from Phlius on the Asopus and from Phthia in Thessaly, the seat of the Myrmidons. Aeacus was regarded as the tutelary deity of Aegina, but his sons abandoned the island, Telamon going to Salamis, and Peleus to Phthia. All that we can safely infer from these legends is that the original inhabitants of Aegina were Achaeans. It was after- wards taken possession of by Dorians from Epidaurus, who introduced into the island the Doric customs and dialect, (Herod, viii. 46 ; Paus. ii. 29. 5.) Together with Epidaurus and other cities on the mainland it became subject to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about u. c. 748. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus (Strab. p. 376), that silver money was first coined in Aegina by Pheidon, and we know that the name of Aeginetan was given to one of the two scales of weights and measures current throughout Greece, the other being the Euboic. There seems, however, good reason for believing with Mr. Grote that what Pheidon did was done in Argos and nowhere else ; and that the name of Aeginetan was 'given to his coinage and scale, not from the place where they first originated, but from the people whose commercial activity tended to make them most generally known. (Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. ii. p. 432.) At an early period Aegina became a place of great commercial importance, and gradually acquired a powerful navy. As early as u. c. 563, hi the reign of Amasis, the Aeginetans established a footing for its merchants at Naucratis in Egypt, and there erected a temple of Zeus. (Herod, ii. 178.) With the increase of power came the desire of political independence ; and they renounced the authority of the Epidaurians, to whom they had hitherto been abject. (Herod, v. 83.) So powerful did they be- come that about the year 500 they held the empire of the sea. According to the testimony of Aristotle (Athen. p. 272), the island contained 470,000 slaves ; but this number is quite incredible, although we may admit that Aegina contained a great popu- lation. At the time of their prosperity the Aegine- tans founded various colonies, such as Cydonia in Crete, and another in Umbria. (Strab. p. 376.) The government was in the hands of an aristocracy. Its citizens became wealthy by commerce, and gave great encouragement to the arts. In fact, for the half AEGIXA. 33 century before the Persian wars and for a few years afterwards, Aegina was the chief seat of Greek art, and gave its name to a school, the most eminent artists of which were Gallon, Anaxagoras, Glaucias, Simon, and Onatas, of whom an account is given in the Diet. ofBiogr. The Aeginetans were at the height of their power when the Thebans applied to them for aid in their war against the Athenians about B. c. 505. Their request was readily granted, since there had been an an- cient feud between the Aeginetans and Athenians. The Aeginetans sent their powerful fleet to ravage the coast of Attica, and did great damage to the latter country, since the Athenians had not yet any fleet to resist them. Tins war was continued with some interruptions down to the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. (Herod, v.81, seq., vi. 86, seq. ; Thuc. i. 41.) The Aeginetans fought with 30 ships at the battle of Salamis (B. c. 480), and were admitted to have distinguished themselves above all the other Greeks by their bravery. (Herod, viii. 46, 93.) From this time their power declined. In 460 the Athenians defeated them in a great naval battle, and laid siege to their principal town, which after a long de- fence surrendered in 456. The Aeginetans now became a part of the Athenian empire, and were compelled to destroy their walls, deliver up their ships of war, and pay an annual tribute. (Thuc. i. 105, 108.) This humiliation of their ancient enemies did not, however, satisfy the Athenians, who feared the proximity of such discontented subjects. Pericles was accustomed to call Aegina the eye-sore of the Peiraeus (77 ATJ/XTJ rov Tleipaitws, Arist. Rhet. iii. 10.; comp. Cic. de Off. iii. 11); and accordingly on the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war in 431, the Athenians expelled the whole population from the island, and filled their place with Athenian settlers. The expelled inhabitants were settled by the Lacedaemonians at Thyrea. They were subsequently collected by Lysander after the battle of Aegos- potami (404), and restored to their own country, but they never recovered their former state of prosperity. (Thuc. ii. 27 ; Plut. Per. 34 ; Xen. Hell ii. 2. 9 ; Strab. p. 375.) Sulpicius, in his celebrated letter to Cicero, enumerates Aegina among the examples of fallen greatness (ad Fam. iv. 5). The chief town in the island was also called Aegina, and was situated on the north-western side. A description of the public buildings of the city is given by Pausanias (ii. 29, 30). Of these the most important was the Aeaceium (Aj'ct/ccioi'), or shrine of Aeacus, a quadrangular inclosure built of white marble, in the most conspicuous part of the city. There was a theatre near the shore as large as that of Epidaurus, behind it a stadium, and likewise nu- merous temples. The city contained two harbours: the principal one was near the temple of Aphrodite ; the other, called the secret harbour, was near the theatre. The site of the ancient city is marked by numerous remains, though consisting for the most part only of foundations of walls and scattered blocks of stone. Near the shore are two Doric columns of the most elegant form. To the S. of these columns is an oval port, sheltered by two ancient moles, which leave only a narrow passage in the middle, between the remains of towers, which stood on either side of the entrance. In the same direction we find another oval port, twice as large as the former, the entrance of which is protected in the same manner by ancient walls or moles, 15 or 20 feet thick. The latter of these ports seems to have been the large harbour, 34 AEGINA. and the former the secret harbour, mentioned by Pausanias. The walls of the city are still traced through their whole- extent on the land side. They were about 10 feet thick, and constructed with towers at intervals not always equal. There appear to have been three principal entrances. On the hill in the north-eastern extremity of the island are the remains of a magnificent temple of the Boric order, many of the columns of which are still RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF AEGIWA. standing. It stood near the sea in a sequestered and lonely spot, commanding a view of the Athenian coast and of the acropolis at Athens. The beautiful sculptures, which occupied the tympana of the pedi- ment, were discovered in 1 8 1 1 , buried under the ruins of the temple. They are now preserved at Munich, AEGINA. and there are casts from them in the British Museum. The subject of the eastern pediment appears to be the expedition of the Aeacidae or Aeginetan heroes against Troy under the guidance of Athena: that of the western probably represents the contest of the Greeks and Trojans over the body of Patroclus. Till comparatively a late period it was considered that this temple was that of Zeus Panhellenius, which Aeacus was said to have dedicated to this god. (Paus. ii. 30. 3, 4.) But in 1826 Stackelberg, in his work on the temple of Phigalia, started the hypothesis, that the temple, of which we have been speaking, was in reality the temple of Athena, men- tioned by Herodotus (iii. 59); and that the temple of Zeus Panhellenius was situated on the lofty mountain in the S, of the island. (Stackelberg, Der Apollo- tempel zu Bassae in Arcadien, Eom, 1826.) This opinion has been adopted by several German writers and also by Di' ; Wordsworth, but has been ably combated by Leake. It would require more space than our limits will allow to enter into this contro- versy; and we must therefore content ourselves with referring our readers, who wish for information on the subject, to the works of Wordsworth and Leake quoted at the end of this article. This temple was probably erected in the sixth century B. c., and ap- parently before B. c. 563, since we have already seen that about this time the Aeginetans built at Naucratis a temple to Zeus, which we may reasonably conclude was in imitation of the great temple in their own island. FRONT ELEVATION OF THE TEMPLE OF AEGINA RESTORED. In the interior of the island was a town called OEA (Ot?j), at the distance of 20 stadia from the city of Aegina. It contained statues of Damia and Auxesia. (Herod, v. 83; Paus. ii. 30. 4.) The position of Oea has not yet been determined, but its name suggests a connection with Oenone, the an- cient name of the island. Hence it has been conjec- tured that it was originally the chief place of the island, when safety required an inland situation for the capital, and when the commerce and naval power which drew population to the maritime site had not yet commenced. On this supposition Leake supposes that Oea occupied the site of Paled-Khora, which Iris been the capital in modern times whenever safety has required an inland situation. Pausanias (iii. 30. 3) mentions a temple of Aphaea, situated on the road to the temple of Zeus Panhellenius. The Heracleum, or temple of Hercules, and Tripyrgia AEGINIUM. (1'piirvpyia), apparently a mountain, at the distance of 17 stadia from the former, are both mentioned by Xenophon {Hell v. 1. 10), but their position is uncertain. (Dodwell, Tour through Greece, vol. i. p. 558, seq.; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 431, seq., JPeloponnesiaca, p. 270, seq.; Wordsworth, Athens and Attica, p. 262, seq.; Boblaye, Recherches Geo- ffraphiques, p. 64; Prokesch, J)enkwurdl(jk>'ikn, vol. ii. p. 460, seq.; Miiller, Aegineticorum Liber. Berol. 1817.) COINS OF AEGIXA. AEGI'NIUM (Alylviov: Etli. Alyivievs, Aegini- ensis : Stagus), a town of the Tymphaei in Thessaly, as described by Livy as a place of great strength and nearly impregnable (Liv. xxxii. 15). It is frequently mentioned in the -Roman wars in Greece. It was given up to plunder by L. Aemilius Paulus for having refused to open its gates after the battle of Pydna. It was here that Caesar in his march from Apollonia effected a junction with Domitius. It occupied the site of the modern Stagtis, a town at a short distance from the Peneus. At this place Leake found an inscription, in which Aeginium is mentioned. Its situation, fortified on two sides by perpendicular rocks, accords with Livy's account of its position. . (Strab. p. 327; Liv. xxxii. 15, xxxvi. 13, xliv. 46, xlv. 27; Caes. B. C. in. 79; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 421, seq.) AEGIPLANCTUS. [MEGARIS.] AEGIROESSA (AiyipSea-va), a city which Herodotus (i. 149) enumerates among the 11 cities of Aeolis; but nothing is known of it. Forbiger conjectures that the historian may mean Aegeirus (Afyeipos), in the island of Lesbos. [G. L.] AEGISSUS or AEGYPSUS (Afyicrcroy, Hierocl. p. 637 ; Afyaros, Procop. 4, 7 ; Aegypsus, Ov.), a town in Moesia, near the mouth of the Danube. It is mentioned by Ovid as having been taken from the king of Thrace, at that time under the pro- tection of Rome, by a sudden incursion of the Getae, and recovered by Vitellius, who was in command of a Roman army in that quarter. Ovid celebrates the valour displayed by his friend Vestalis upon the occasion. (Ep. ex Ponto, i. 8. 13, iv.7.21.) [H.W.] AEGITHALLUS (AtVflaAAoj, Diod. ; Aiyi- 0a\os, Zonar. ; AiyiOapos, Ptol.) a promontory on the W. coast of Sicily, near Lilybaeum, which was occupied and fortified by the Roman consul L. Junius during the First Punic War (B. c. 249), with a view to support the operations against Lilybaeum, but was recovered by the Carthaginian general Car- thalo, and occupied with a strong garrison. Diodorus tells us it was called in his time ACELLUM, but it AEGIUM. 35 is evidently the same with the Aiyi9apos &Kpa of Ptoli-iiiy, which he places between Drepanum and Lilybaeum ; and is probably the headland now called Capo S. Teodoro, which is immediately opposite to the island of Burr one. (Diod. xxiv. Exc. H. p. 50; Zonar. viii. 15: Ptol. iii. 4. 4; Cluver. Sicil. p. 248.) [E. H. B.] AEGI'TIUM (Aty'Tioz/), a town in Aetolia Epic- tetus, on the borders of Locris, situated in the midst of mountains, about 80 stadia from the sea. Here Demosthenes was defeated by the Aetolians, B.C. 426. Leake places it near Varnakova, where he found the remains of an ancient city. (Time. iii. 97 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 617.) AE'GIUM (Atyiov, Atyetov, Athen. p. 606: Eth. Alyievs, Aegiensis : Vostitza), a town of Achaia, and one of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated upon the coast W. of the river Selinus 30 stadia from Rhypae, and 40 stadia from Helice. It stood between two promontories in the comer of a bay, which formed the best harbour in Achaia next to that of Patrae. It is said to have been formed out of an union of 7 or 8 villages. It is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue; and, after the destruction of the neighbouring city of Helice by an earth- quake, in B. c. 373 [HELICE], it obtained the territory of the latter, and thus became the chief city of Achaia. From this time Aegium was chosen as the place of meeting for the League, and it retained this distinction, on the revival of the League, till Philopoemen carried a law that the meeting might be held in any of the towns of the confederacy. Even under the Roman empire the Achaeans were allowed to keep up the form of their periodical meetings at Aegium, just as the Amphictyons were permitted to meet at Ther- mopylae and Delphi. (Paus. vii. 24. 4.) The meetings were held in a grove near the sea, called Homagyrium or Hemarntm, sacred to Zeus Ho- magyrius or Homarius ('Quayvpiov, 'Op.dptoi/- in Strab. pp. 385, 387, 'Opapiov should be read in- stead of 'Apvdpiov and Alvdpiov). Close to this grove was a temple of Demeter Panchaea. The words Homagyrium, " assembly," and Homarium, " union," * have reference to those meetings, though in later times they were explained as indicating the spot where Agamemnon assembled the Grecian chieftains jefore the Trojan War. There were several other temples and public buildings at Aegium, of which an account is given by Pausa- nias. (Horn.//, ii. 574; Herod, i. 145; Pol. ii. 41, v. 93; Strab. pp. 337, 385, seq.; Paus. vii. 23, 24; Liv. xxxviii. 30; Plin. iv. 6.) Vostitza, which occupies the site of the ancient Aegium, is a place of some importance. It derives its name from the gardens by which it is surrounded (from &6 who collected the crown revenues, and presided in the local capital and chief court of justice. Each nome, too, had its separate priesthood, its temple, chief and inferior towns, its magistrates, registration and peculiar creed, ceremonies, and customs, and each was apparently independent of every other nome. At certain seasons delegates from the various cantons met in the palace of the Labyrinth for con- sultation on public affairs (Strab. p. 811). Accord- ing to Diodorus (i. 54), the nomes date from Sesostris. But they did not originate with that mon- arch, but emanated probably from the distinctions of animal worship; and the extent of the local worship probably determined the boundary of the nome. Thus in the nome of Thebais, where the ram- headed deity was worshipped, the sheep was sacred, the goat was eaten and sacrificed : in that of Mendes, where the goat was worshipped, the sheep was a victim and an article of food. Again, in the nome of Ombos, divine honours were paid to the croco- dile: in that of Tentyra, it was hunted and abomi- nated; and between Ombos and Tentyra there existed an internecine feud. (Juv. Sat. xv.) The extent and number of the nomes cannot be ascer- tained. They probably varied with the political state of Egypt. Under a dynasty of conquerors, they would extend eastward and westward to the Red Sea and Libyan deserts : under the Hyksos, the Aethiopian conquest, and the tunes of anarchy subse- quent to the Persian invasion, they would shrink within the Nile-valley. The kingdoms of Sais and Xois and the foundation of Alexandria probably multiplied the Deltaic cantons : and generally, com- merce, or the residence of the military caste, would attract the nomes to Lower Egypt. According to Strabo (pp. 787, 811), the Labyrinth, or hall of the Nomarchs, contained 27 chambers, and thus, at one period, the nomes must have been 27 in number, 10 in the Thebaid, 10 in the Delta, and 7, as its name implies, in the Heptanomis. But the Heptanomis, at another period, contained 16 nomes, and the sum of these cantons is variously given. From the dodecarchy or government of 12 kings, and from Herodotus' assertion (ii. 148) that there were only 12 halls hi the Labyrinth, we are disposed to infer, that at one time there were only 12 of these cantons, and that there were always 12 larger or preponderating nomes. According to the lists given by Pliny (v. 9. 9) and Ptolemy, there must have been at least 45 nomes ; but each of these writers gives several names not found in the other, and if we should add the variations of the one list to the other, the sum would be much greater. There was, under the Macedonian kings, a sub- division of the nomes into toparchies, which was probably an arrangement to meet the fiscal system of the Greeks. (Herod, ii. 164; Diod. i. 54; Strab. xvii ; Cyrill. Alex, ad Isaiam, xix. 2 ; Epiphan Haere*. 24. 7.) The following list of the principal Nomes will illustrate the variety of these territorial subdivisions as regards religious worship. A. NOMES OF THE DELTA. The most im- portant were : 1. The Menelaite; chief town Canobus, with a celebrated temple and oracle of Serapis (Strab. p. 801 ; Pint. Is. et Osir. c. 27.) AfcGYPTUS. 39 2. The Andropolite ; chief town Andropolis. 3. The Sebennytic; capital Paehnamunis (Ptol.), worshipped Latona. 4. The Chemmite (Herod, ii. 165); capital Buto. Its deity was also called Buto, whom the Greeks identified with Leto. Ptolemy calls this canton WtvoT-ns, and Pliny (v. 9) Ptenetha. 5. The Onuphite; chief town Onuphis. (Herod, ii. 166.) 6. The Phthemphuthite; capital Tava. (fcteju- (povBl vo/ji6s, Ptol.; Phthempha, Plin. v. 9.) 7. The Saite; chief city Sais, worshipped Neilh or Athene, and contained a tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris. (Herod, ii. 170; Strab. p. 802.) Under the dynasty of the Saitic Kings this was the principal of the Deltaic cantons. 8. The Busirite ; capital Busiris, worshipped Isis, and at one epoch, according to Hellenic tradition at least, sacrificed the red-coloured men who came over the sea, i. e. the nomades of Syria and Arabia (Herod, i. 59, 33, 165; Strab. p. 802; Plut. de Is. et Os. p. 30.) 9. The Thmuite; chief town Thmuis (Herod, ii. 168), afterwards incorporated with the following: 10. The Mendesian; capital Mendes (Herod, ii. 42, 46 ; Diod. i. 84), worshipped the goat Mendes, or the horned Pan. 11. The Tanite; chief town Tanis. (Herod, ii. 166; Strab. p. 802.) In this nome tradition affirmed that the Hebrew legislator was born and educated. 12. The Bubastite; capital Bubastus, contained a noble temple of Bubastis or Artemis. (Herod, ii. 59, 67, 137.) 13. The Athribite; capital Athribis, where the shrewmouse and crocodile were held in reverence. 14. The Heliopolite, west of the Delta, and sacred to the sun, from whom its capital Heliopolis (On) derived its name. (Herod, ii. 9 ; Diod. v. 56 ; Joseph. ^*.ii. 3.) 15. The Heroopolite; chief town Heroopolis, a principal seat of the worship of Typhon, the evil or destroying genius. Besides these the Delta contained other less im- portant nomes, the Nitriote, where the Natron Lakes, Nitrariae (Plin. v. 9) were situated; the Letopolite (Strab. p. 807>); the Prosopite; the Leon- topolite; the Mentelite; the Pharbaethite ; and the Sethraite. B. NOMES OF THE HEPTANOMIS. The most important were : 1. The Memphite, whose chief city Memphis was the capital of Egypt, and the residence of the Pha- raohs, who succeeded Psammetichus B.C. 616. The Memphite Nome rose into importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais, and was itself in turn eclipsed by the Hellenic kingdom of Alexandria. [MEMPHIS.] 2. The Aphroditopolite; chief town Aphrodito- polis, was dedicated to Athor or Aphrodite. 3. The Arsinoite, the Fayoom, celebrated for its worship of the crocodile, from which its capital Crocodilopolis, afterwards Arsinoe, derived its name. [AKSINOE.] The Labyrinth and the Lake of Moeris were in this canton. 4. The Heracleote, in which the ichneumon was worshipped. Its principal town was Heracleopolis Magna. 5. The Hermopolite, the border nome between Middle and Upper Egypt. This was at a very early period a flourishing canton. Its chief city Hennopolis stood near the frontiers of the Hepta- D4 40 AEGYPTUS. nomis, a little to the north of the castle and toll-house ('Ep/iOTToTuraj/T? \aicfi, Strab. p. 813), where the portage was levied on all craft coming from the Upper Country. 6. The Cynopolite, the seat of the worship of the hound and dog-headed deity Anubis. Its capital was Cynopolis, which must however be distinguished from the Deltaic city and other towns of the same name. (Strab. p. 812 ; Ptol. ; Pint. Is. et Osir. c. 72.) The Greater Oasis (Ammonium) and the Lesser were reckoned among the Heptanomite Cantons : but both were considered as one nome only. [OASES.] C. NOMES OF UPPER EGYPT. The most im- portant were : 1. The Lycopolite, dedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was Lycopolis. 2. The Antaeopolite, probably worshipped Typhon (Diod. i. 21); its capital was Antaeopolis (Plut, de Solert. Anvm. 23.) 3. The Aphroditopolite [Comp. Nome (2), Hep- tanomis.] In cases where a southern and a northern canton possessed similar objects of worship, the latter was probably an offset or colony of the former, as the Thebaid was the original cradle of Egyptian civilisation, which advanced northward. 4. The Panopolite or, as it was afterwards called, the Chemmite, offered hero-worship to an apotheosized man, whom the Greeks compared to the Minyan hero Perseus. (Herod, ii. 91.) This canton, whose chief town was Panopolis or Chemmis (Diod. i. 18), was principally inhabited by linen-weavers and stone- 5. The Thinite, probably one of the most ancient, as it was originally the leading nome of the Thebaid, and the nome or kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. The Thinite nome worshipped Osiris, contained a Memnonium, and, in Eoman times at least (Amm. Marc. xix. 12 ; Spartian. Hadrian. 14), an oracle of Besa. Its ca- pital was Abydus, or, as it was called earlier, This. [ABYDUS.] 6. The Tentyrite worshipped Athor (Aphrodite), Isis, and Typhon. Its inhabitants hunted the crocodile, and were accordingly at feud with the Ombite nome. (Juv. xv.) Its chief town was Tentyra. 7. The Coptite, whose inhabitants were principally occupied in the caravan trade between Berenice, Myos Hormos, and the ulterior of Arabia and Libya. Its capital was Coptos. [Copros.] 8. The Hermonthite, worshipped Osiris and his son Orus : its chief town was Hermonthis. 9. The Apollonite, like the Tentyrite nome, de- stroyed the crocodile (Strab. p. 817; Plin. v. 9 ; Aelian, H. An. x. 21 ; Plut. Is. et Os. 50), and reverenced the sun. Its capital was Apollinopolis Magna. This nome is sometimes annexed to the preceding. 10. The Ombite (Ombites praefectura, Plin. H. N. v. 9), worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak (comp. supra (6) and (9), and the Arsinoite (3), Heptanomite nomes). Ombos was its capital. The quarries of sandstone, so much employed in Egyptian architecture, were principally seated in this canton. V. Animal Worship. Animal worship is so intimately connected with the division of the country into nomes, and, in some degree, with the institution of castes, that we must briefly allude to it, although the subject is much AEGYPTUS. too extensive for more than allusion. The worship of animals was either general or particular, common to the whole nation, or several to the nome. Thus throughout Egypt, the ox, the dog, and the cat, the ibis and the hawk, and the fishes lepidotus and oxyrrynchus, were objects of veneration. The sheep was worshipped only in the Saitic and Thebaid nomes : the goat at Mendes ; the wolf at Lycopolis ; the cepus (a kind of ape) at Babylon, near Mem- phis ; the lion at Leontopolis, the eagle at Thebes, the shrewmouse at Athribis, and others elsewhere, as will be particularly noticed when we speak of their respective temples. As we have already seen, the object of reverence in one nome was ac- counted common and unclean, if not, indeed, the object of persecution in another. Animal worship has been in all ages the opprobrium of Egypt (comp. Clem. Alex. iii. 2, p. 253, Potter; Diod. i. 84). The Hebrew prophets denounced, the anthropo- morphic religionists of Hellas derided it. To the extent to which the Egyptians carried it, especially in the decline of the nation, it certainly approached to the fetish superstitions of the neighbouring Libya. But we must Itear in mind, that our vergers to the Coptic temples are Greeks who, being igno- rant of the language, misunderstood much that they heard, and being preoccupied by their own ritual or philosophy, misinterpreted much that they saw. One good effect may be ascribed to this form of superstition. In no country was humanity to the brute creation so systematically practised. The origin of animal worship has been variously, but never satisfactorily, accounted for. If they were worshipped as the auxiliaries of the husbandman in producing food or destroying vermin, how can we account for the omission of swine and asses, or for the adoption of lions and wolves among the objects of veneration? The Greeks, as was their wont, found many idle solutions of an enigma which pro- bably veiled a feeling originally earnest and pious. They imagined that animals were worshipped be- cause their effigies were the standards in war, like the Koman Dii Castrorum. This is evidently a substitution of cause for effect. The representations of animals on martial ensigns were the standards of the various nomes (Diod. i. 85). Lucian (Astrolog, v. p. 215, seq. Bipont) suggested that the bull, the lion, the fish, the ram, and the goat, &c. were correlates to the zodiacal emblems ; but this surmise leaves the crocodile, the cat, and the ibis, &c. of the temples unexplained. It is much more probable that, among a contemplative and serious race, as the Egyptians certainly were, animal-worship arose out of the detection of certain analogies between in- stinct and reason, and that to the initiated the reve- rence paid to beasts was a primitive expression of pantheism, or the recognition of the Creator in every type of his work. The Egyptians are not the only people who have converted type into substance, or adopted in a literal sense the metaphorical symbols of faith. VI. Castes and Political Institutions. The number of the Egyptian castes is very va- riously stated. Herodotus (ii. 164) says that they were seven the sacerdotal and the military, herds- men, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters, and boatmen. Plato (Timaeus, iii. p. 24) reckons six; Diodorus, in one passage (i. 28) represents them as three priests and husbandmen, from whom the army was levied, and artisans. But in another AEGYPTUS. (i. 74) he exte ids the number to five, by the addi- tion of soldiers and shepherds. Strabo limits them to three priests, soldiers, and husbandmen ;iiul as this partition is virtually correct, we .shall adopt it after brief explanation. The existence of castes is a corroborative proof of the Asiatic origin of the Egyptians. The stamp of caste was not in Kgypt, as is sometimes asserted, indelible. The son usually, but not inevitably, followed his father's t ni
  • or profession. From some of the pariah classes indeed such as that of the swineherds it was M'.-mvly possible to escape. The land in Egypt upon which the institution of <'a>k'.s rested belonged in fee only to the king, the priests, and the soldiers. We know from Genesis (xlvii. 26) that all other proprietors of the soil had .surrendered their rights to the crown, and received their lands again subject to an annual rent of of the produce. The priests we know (Genes. I. c.), the soldiers we infer (Diod. i. 74), retained their absolute ownership; and in so productive a country as Egypt the husbandman was too important a per- .son to be deprived at once of all his political rights. He was in i'aet an integral although an inferior section of the war-caste. The privileged orders however were the king, the priest, the soldier: 1. The Kiny was at first elective, and always a ineinlwr of the priesthood. He afterwards became hereditary, and was taken indifferently from the .-.leerdotal and military orders. If however he were lv birth a soldier, he was adopted on his accession by the priests. Even the Ptolemies were not allowed to reign without such previous adoption. His initi- ation into the sacred mysteries was represented on monuments by the tan, the emblem of life and the key of secrecy, impressed upon his lips (Plut. de Is. ct Osir. p. 354, B.; Plat. Hep. ii. p. 290). The king, when not engaged in war, was occupied in jurisdiction and the service of religion. The royal life was one long ceremony. His rising and his lying down ; his meals, his recreations, and the order of his employments, were rigidly prescribed to him. Some liberty in law-making indeed was allowed him, since we read of the laws of Sesostris, Amasis, and other Egyptian rulers: and, with vigo- rous occupants of the throne, it is probable that the soldier occasionally transgressed the priestly ordi- nances. As but few, however, of the Egyptian monarchs seem to have grossly abused their power, we may conclude that the hierarchy at least tempered royal despotism. In paintings the king is always re- l as many degrees taller and more robust than subject warriors. A thousand fly before him, and he holds strings of prisoners by the hair. The Egyptian king wears also the emblems and some- times even the features of the gods; and it is fre- quently difficult to distinguish on the monuments Sesortasen, Amunopht, &c. from Osiris. It is re- markable that females wre not excluded from a throne so sacerdotal. A queen, Nitocris, occurs in the sixth dynasty; another, Scemiophris, in the twelfth, and other examples are found in the sculp- tures. On the decease of a sovereign a kind of posthumous judgment was exercised on his character and government. His embalmed body was placed the sepulchre, and all men were permitted to bring tions against him. Virtuous princes received species of deification: condemned princes were ebarred from sepulture. 2. The Priests however were, in ordinary times, real governing body of Egypt. Their lands were AEGYPTUS. 41 rojai aesp presented his subje< J T U_ exempt from tribute: their persons were greeted with servile homage ; they were the sole depositaries of learning and science: and they alone were acquainted with all the formularies which in Egypt regulated nearly every action of life. Their various and in- cessant occupations appear even in the titles of the subdivisions of the priest-caste. " Each deity," says Herodotus (ii. 37), " had several priests [priestesses] and a high priest." The chiefs or pontiffs were the judges of the land, the councillors of the sovereign, the legislators and the guardians of the great mys- teries. The minor priests were prophets, inferior judges and magistrates, hierophants, hiero-grammats or sacred scribes, basilico-grammats or royal scribes, dressers and keepers of the royal and sacerdotal wardrobes, physicians, heralds, keepers of the sacred animals, architects, draughtsmen, beadles, vergers, sprinklers of water, fan bearers, &c. (Wilkinson, M. and C. vol. i. p. 238). So numerous a staff was not in the peculiar polity of Egypt altogether superfluous, neither does it seem to have been pe- culiarly burdensome to the nation, since it derived its support from regular taxes and from its proprietary lands. Nowhere in the ancient world was the number of temples so great as in Egypt : nowhere were there so many religious festivals ; nowhere was ordi- nary life so intimately blended with religion. The priest therefore was mixed np in affairs of the market, the law court, the shop, the house, in ad- dition to his proper vocation in the temple. His life was the reverse of ascetic : in the climate of Egypt frequent ablutions, linen garments, papyrus sandals, were luxuries, only polygamy was forbidden him. But he was enjoined to marry, and the son succeeded the father in the sacred office (Herod, ii. 143). Herodotus (comp. ii. 35, 55) contradicts himself hi saying that females could not fulfil sacerdotal duties, women might be incapable of the highest offices, but both sculptures and documents prove, that they were employed in many of the minor duties connected with the temples. 3. The Soldiers. The whole military force of Egypt amounted to 410,000 men (Herod, ii. 165 166; Diod. i. 54). It was divided into two corps, the Calasirians and the Hermotybians. The former were the more numerous, and in the most flourishing era of Egypt, the 18th and 19th dynasties, were estimated at 250,000 men. Each of these divisions furnished a thousand men annually to perform the duty of royal body guards. During the term of their attendance they received from the king daily rations of bread, beef, and wine. When summoned to the field or to garrison duty, each soldier provided himself with the necessary arms and baggage. The prin- cipal garrisons of Egypt were on its southern and eastern borders, at Syene and Elephantine, at Hiera- compolis and Eilethyas, which towns, on opposite sides of the river, commanded the Nile-valley above Thebes, and at Marea and Pelusium. The western frontier was, until Egypt stretched to the Cyrenaica, guarded sufficiently by the Libyan desert. In time of peace the troops who were not in garrisons or at court were settled in various nomes principally east of the Nile, and in the Delta; since it was in that quarter Egypt was most exposed to invasion from the pas- toral Arabs or the yet more formidable nomade tribes of Assyria and Palestine. According to Herodotus (ii. 168), each soldier was allowed 12 arourae of land, or about six acres free from all charge or tribute, from which allotment he defrayed the cost of his arms and equipment. To the Egyptian soldier 42 AEGYPTUS. handicraft employment was forbidden, agricultural labours were enjoined. The monuments exhibit offi- cers with recruiting parties, soldiers engaged in gym- nastic exercises, and in the battle pieces, which are extremely spirited, all the arts of offensive and de- fensive war practised by the Egyptians are repre- sented. The war-caste was necessarily a very im- portant element in a state which was frequently engaged in distant conquests, and had a wide extent of territory to defend. Yet until the reigns of Sethos, when the priests invaded its privileges, and of Psammetichus, when the king encroached upon them, we find no trace of mutiny or civil war in Egypt, a proof that the Calasirians and Hermp- tybians were not only well disciplined, but also, in the main, contented with their lot. VII. Civil History. The History of Egypt is properly arranged under five eras. 1. Egypt under its native rulers the Pharaonic Era. Its commencement is unknown: it closes with the conquest of the land by Cambyses in B. c. 525. 2. The Persian Era, from B. c. 525, to the Macedonian invasion, B. c. 332. 3. The Macedonian or Hellenic Era. This period is computed either from the foundation of Alexan- dria, in B. c. 332, or from B. c. 323, when Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, converted the satrapy of Egypt into an hereditary kingdom. This period extends to the death of Cleopatra, in B. c. 30. 4. The Roman Era, from the surrender of Alex- andria to Augustus, in B. c. 30, to the capture of that city by the Khalif Omar in A. D. 640. 5. The Mahommedan Era, from A. D. 640 to the present time. The last of these periods belongs to modern his- tory, and does not come within the scope of this work. The first of them must be very briefly treated, partly because it involves questions which it would demand a volume to discuss, and partly because Egypt came into the field of classical his- tory through its relations with the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. For complete information the student of the Pharaonic era must consult the larger works of Denon, Young, Champollion, Rosellini, Heeren, Wilkinson, Bunsen and Lepsius ; or the very lucid abstract of this period in Kenrick's Ancient Egypt, which, indeed, contains all that the general reader can require. 1. Pharaonic Era. Authorities. The original records of Egypt were kept with no ordinary care, and were very various in kind, sculpture, symbol, writing, all con- tributing to their contents. Herodotus (ii. 72 82), Theophrastus (ap. Porphyr. de Abstinent, ii. 5), Cicero (de Repub. iii. 8) concur in describing the Egyptians as the most learned and accurate of mankind in whatsoever concerned their native annals. The priests, Diodorus (i. 44) assures us, had transmitted in unbroken succession written descriptions of all their kings their physical powers and disposition, and their personal exploits. The antiquity of writing in Egypt is no longer a subject of dispute. Lepsius (Book of the Dead, Leipzig, 1842, Pref. p. 17) found on monuments as early as the 12th dynasty, the hieroglyphic sign of the papyrus; and on the 4th that of the stylus and inkstand. The Egyptians themselves also AEGYPTUS. observed the distinction between the dry pontifical chronicle and mythical and heroical narratives couched in poetry and song. To this mass of written documents are to be added the sculptured monuments themselves, the tomhs, obelisks, and temple walls, whose paintings and inscriptions have been partially decyphered hy modern scholars, and are found generally to correspond with the written lists of kings compiled, in the first instance, by the native historian Manetho. Egyptian history, how- ever, in the modern acceptation of the word, began after the establishment of the Greek sovereignty of Egypt. The natives, with the natural pride of a once ruling but now subject race, were eager to impart to their Hellenic masters more correct no- tions of their history and religion than could be obtained either from the relations of Greek tra- vellers, such as Thales and Solon, or from the narratives of Hecataeus, Democritus, and Herodotus. Of Manetho, of Sextus Julius Africanus, from whose, chronicon, in five books, Eusebius derived a con- siderable portion of his own chronicon, of Georgius the Syncellus, of Eratosthenes, the Alexandrian mathematician, who treated largely of Egyptian chronology, accounts have been given in the Dic- tionary of Greek and Roman Biography, and to its columns we must refer for the bibliography of Egyptian history. Lastly, we must point out the extreme value of the Hebrew scriptures and of Josephus among the records of the Nile-valley. The remote antiquity of Egyptian annals is not essentially an objection to their credibility. The Syncellus assigns 3555 years as the duration of Manetho's thirty dynasties. These being Egyptian years, are equivalent to 3553 Julian years, and, added to 339 B. c., when the thirtieth dynasty ex- pired, give 3892 B. c. as the commencement of the reign of Menes, the founder of the monarchy. But although Bunsen and other distinguished Egypt- ologers are disposed to assign an historical person- ality to Menes, his very name, as the name of an individual man, seems suspicious. It too nearly resembles the Menu of the Indians, the Minyas and Minos of the Greeks, the Menerfa of the Etruscans, and the Mannus of the Germans in all which languages the name is connected with a root Man signifying " to think and speak" (see Quarterly Review, vol. 78, p. 149) to be accepted implicitly as a personal designation. The Pharaonic era of Egyptian history may be divided into three portions the Old, the Middle, and the New monarchy. The first extends from the foundation of the kingdom in B. c. 3892 to the invasion of the Hyksos. The second from the con- quest of Lower Egypt by the Hyksos and the establishment of an independent kingdom in the Thebaid, to the expulsion of the Hyksos. The third from the re- establishment of the native monarchy by Amosis to the final conquest by Cam- byses in B. c. 525. (Kenrick, Ancient Eyypt, vol. ii. p. 110.) (1.) The Old Monarchy. The chronology of this and the succeeding division of the Egyptian monarchy is beset v?ith, at present, insurmountable difficulties; since, in the first place, there are no synchronisms in the annals of other countries to guide the inquirer, and in the next, we know not whether the dynasties in Manetho should be taken as a series, or whether he enumerates contempo- raneous families of kings, some of whom reigned, at the same time, at Memphis, and others at Saii, uun>jr i accordi higheri extend 5049 } is contaii Kratosth agreemei AEGYPTUS. x>is, Thebes, &c. And even if Manetho him- self intended his dynasties to follow one another in direct order, the question still remains whether his authorities did so too. Gods, spirits, demigods, and 1 Manes, or the souls of menwere,according toManctho, the first rulers of Egypt. They began with Ptha or Hephaestus and closed with Horus. Then follow thirty dynasties of mortal kings, 300 in number, ing to the lowest, and 500, according to the iirhest computation. The time over which they extend varies also between the limits of 3555 and 5049 years. Manetho's account of these dynasties is contained in three volumes: Herodotus, Diodorus, ,tosthenes and Manetho, amid their many dis- nts, concur in this statement that Menes of This was the first mortal king of Mizraim, the double land, i. e., Upper and Lower Egypt. Here, indeed, their coincidence ends. For Herodotus makes Menes the founder of Memphis, as well as of the monarchy : whereas Diodorus states that Memphis, the embank- ments which supported its area, and the diversion of the Nile stream were the works of a monarch, who lived many centuries afterwards. The second name in the 4th dynasty is Suphis, to whom Mane- tho ascribes the building of the Great Pyramid, re we seem to touch upon historical ground, in a recently opened room of that pyramid been decyphered the name of Chufu or Shufu, Cheops of Herodotus, who, however, places that monarch much lower. The erection of the Second Pyramid is attributed by Herodotus and Diodorus to Chephren; and upon the neighbouring tombs, for the pyramid itself seems to be uninscribed, has been read the name of Shafre, accompanied by a midal figure. There is sufficient approxima- between Shafre and Chephren to identify them th each other, although no corresponding name occurs in either Eratosthenes or Manetho. Fourth in the 4th dynasty is Mencheres, the builder of the third pyramid, the Mycerinus of Herodotus (ii. 127) and Diodorus (i. 64) ; and their statement is fully confirmed by the discovery of a mummy case in that pyramid, with the inscription, Menkera. Ma- netho, indeed, makes Nitocris, a queen of the 6th dynasty, the Nitocris of Herodotus (ii. 100), to have built the third pyramid. The 7th dynasty was apparently a period of anarchy, since it contains 70 Memphite kings, who reigned for 70 days only. They were probably interreges or vice-kings. Of the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth dynasties not even the names of the kings are known. Two of these were Memphite dynasties, two Heracleopolitan. and one Diospolitan, the dynasty being in each case named apparently from the birth-place of its founder. The 12th dynasty bears in Manetho's list a very historical aspect, since its catalogue of seven Diospolitan kings is not only complete, but comprises also the name of Sesostris, or more pro- perly Sesortasen or Sesortosis, who, it is said, " sub- dued all Asia in nine years, and part of Europe as as Thrace," as well as that of Lacharis (Lamaris Maras), who built the Labyrinth in the Arsinoite nome. Yet, until recently this list has received no confirmation from hieroglyphics. Even the con- quests of Sesostris probably belong to the 18th dynasty and to Barneses III. Both Herodotus and Diodorus place Sesostris much later: and the former historian refers the erection of the Labyrinth to the period of the Dodecarchia. The 13th dynasty con- sisted of 60 Diospolite kings, who reigned, it is said, 453 years, and the 14th of 76 Xoite kings, ueeu pyrai E uue - AEGYPTUS. 43 who reigned 184 years, but the names and acts of both have perished. With the 14th dynasty closes the first period of the Pharaonic era. (2.) The Middle Monarchy. The second pe- riod, consisting of three dynasties, is that of tho Shepherd Kings. A passage of Manetho's lost work Aegyptiaca, cited by Josephus hi his rejoinder to tho Graeco-Egyptian grammarian Apion (Joseph. c. Apion. i. 14), places this period in comparative light before us. That a Nomadic Arab horde for several centuries occupied and made Egypt tribu- tary ; that their capital was Memphis ; that in the Sethroite nome they constructed an immense earth- camp which they called Abaris ; that at a certain period of their occupation two independent kingdoms were formed in Egypt, one in the Thebaid, in intimate relations with Aethiopia, another at Xois, among the marshes of the Nile; that, finally, the Egyptians re- gained their independence and expelled the Hyksos, who thereupon retired into Palestine, are probably authentic facts, and indeed involve in themselves no just cause for doubt. The only suspicious circum- stance in Manetho's narrative is the exaggeration of numbers, but this is a defect common to all primeval record. The Hyksos indeed left behind them no architectural memorials, and the Egyptians, when they recovered Lower Egypt, would not be likely to perpetuate their own subjection, nor the priests who instructed Herodotus and Diodorus to confess that the Nile-valley had ever paid tithe or toll to an abominable race of shepherd kings. The silence of annalists and monuments is therefore at least a negative argument in support of the truth of Ma- netho's account : nor is it improbable that the long and inveterate hatred with which the Egyptians regarded the pastoral tribes of Arabia owed its origin to their remembrance of this period of humiliation. The Middle Monarchy extended over a period of 953 years according to the Syncellus and Africanus: but, according to Manetho, the Hyksos were lords of Egypt only 511 years. The larger number probably includes the sum of the years of the three contem- poraneous dynasties at Xois, Memphis, and Thebes. (3.) The New Monarchy. The third period, or the New Monarchy, extends from the commencement of the 18th to the end of the 30th dynasty. The New Monarchy commences with the expulsion of the Hyksos, or rather perhaps with the revolt of the Thebaid which effected it. The earlier kings of the 18th dynasty, Amosis, Misphragmuthosis, &c. were apparently engaged in successive attacks upon the intruders. But, after its final victory, Egypt again, or perhaps now for the first time a united kingdom, attained a long and striking prosperity. The names of Thutmosis (Thothmes), of Ameno- phis (the Greek Memnon ?), and above all, of Ba- rneses III., are read on various monuments in Nubia, and Egypt, and most conspicuously in the Thebaid temples at Luxor and Karnak. The 18th dynasty was the flourishing age of Egyptian art : its sculp- ture became bolder, its paintings more artistic and elaborate : the appliances and inventions of civilisa- tion more diversified. Barneses, if indeed under his name are not embodied the acts of his dynasty, was the Alexander of the Nile-valley. Seventeen cen- turies after his reign Germanicus visited Thebes, and the priests read to him, on the monuments, tho acts and wars, the treasures and the tributes, the subjects and the domains of this powerful king (Tac. Ann. ii. 60). This was no Eastern exapgora- , tion. The " Tablet of Karnak ," says Kenrick (vol. ii. 44 AEGYPTUS. p. 229), whose inscription was interpreted to Ger- manicus in A. D. 1 6, " was strictly an historical and statistical document. Its dates are precise; and though we may be unable to identify the countries named, the exactness with which they are enume- rated, with the weights and numbers of the objects which they bring, proves that we have before us an authentic record, at least of the tribute enjoined upon the nations." About this time the southern frontier of Egypt extended beyond the Second Cata- ract: to the west the power of Thothmes or Ba- meses reached over the negro tribes of the interior: the east was guarded by strong fortresses : while by the north the Egyptian monarch went forth as a conqueror, and, proceeding along the Syrian coast, passed into Asia Minor, and planted his standard on the frontiers of Persia, and upon the shores of the Caspian Sea. His campaigns required the coopera- tion of a fleet ; and Egypt became, for the first time in history, a maritime power. It is probable in- deed that its navy was furnished by its subjects, the inhabitants of the coast of Western Asia. The period of time assigned to this dynasty is about two centuries and a half. Eameses III., there is every reason to think, is the Sesostris or Sesortasen of Herodotus and Diodorus. The names of the monarchs of the 18th dynasty are obtained from two important monuments, the Tablet of Abydos and the Tablet of Karnak. The 19th dynasty is probably a continuation of its predecessor, and its details are extremely con- fused and uncertain. The 20th was composed entirely of kings bearing the name of Barneses (Ba- meses IV. XIII.), of whom Barneses IV. alone maintained the military renown of his illustrious precursors. The 21st is uninteresting. But in the 22nd we come upon the first ascertained synchro- nism with the annals of the Hebrews, and conse- quently at this point Egyptian chronology begins to blend with that of the general history of the world. There is no doubt that Abraham and his son visited Egypt; that the Nile- valley had at one era a He- brew prime minister, who married a daughter of the high priest of Heliopolis; or that the most il- lustrious of the Hebrew monarchs maintained close political and commercial relations with Egypt, and allied himself with its royal family. But although the facts are certain, the dates are vague. Now, however, in the 22nd dynasty, we can not only identify the Shishak who took and plundered Je- rusalem with the Sesonchis or Sesonchosis of the Greeks and the Sheshonk of the native monuments, but we can also assign to him contemporaneity with Eehoboam, and fix the date of his capture of Jeru- salem to about the year B. c. 972. By the esta- blishment of the date of Sheshonk's plundering of Jerusalem, we also come to the knowledge that the Pharaoh whose daughter was espoused to Solomon, and the sister of whose queen Tahpenes was, in the reign of David, married to Hadad the Edomite, was a monarch of the 2 1st dynasty (1 Kings, ix. 16; xi. 19, seq.). Osorthen or Osorcho, Sheshonk's successor, is probably the Zerah of Scripture (2 Kings, xvii. 4. ; 2 Chron. xiv. 9). The Sesostrid kingdom was now on the decline, and at the close of the 24th dynasty Egypt was subjugated by the Etlu'opians, and three kings of that nation, Sabaco, Sebichos or Sevekos, and Tarkus, reigned for 44 years, and composed the 25th dynasty. Sevekos is obviously the Seva, king of Egypt, with whom Hoshea, king of Israel, in B.C. AEGYPTUS. 722, entered into an alliance (2 Kings, xvii. 4); while Tarkus is Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, the enemy of Assyria and Sennacherib (Isaiah, xxxvii. 9). Herodotus indeed makes no mention of any Ethiopian king except Sabaco (Sebichos), who, according to his account, reigned for half a century, and then voluntarily withdrew into his own Nubian dominions. (Herod, ii. 139.) The Aethiopian dynasty was the second foreign occupation of Egypt, but it differed materially from the earlier usurpation of the land by the Hyksos. The 25th dynasty does not appear to have been regarded by the Egyp- tians themselves as a period of particular woe or oppression. The alliance between the country above and the country below Elephantine and the Second Cataract was apparently, at all times, very close: the religion and manners of the adjoining kingdoms differed but little from one another : and the Aethio- pian sovereigns perhaps merely exchanged, during their tenure of Egypt, a less civilised for a more civilised realm. On the retirement of the Ethio- pians, there was an apparent re-action, since Sethos, a priest of Phtah, made himself master of the throne. His power seems to have been exercised tyrannically, if Herodotus (ii. 147) is correct in saying that after the death or deposition of this " priest of Hephaestos " the Egyptians were " set free." One important change, indicating a decay of the ancient constitution, occurred in this reign. The military caste was degraded, and the crown even attempted to deprive them of their lands. It is probable that this was a revolutionary phase common to all countries at certain eras. Egypt had become in some degree a naval power. The com- mercial classes were rivalling in power the agricul- tural and military, and the priest-king, for his own interests, took part with the former. Sethos was succeeded (B. c. 700 670) by the dodecarchy, or twelve contemporaneous kings ; whether this number were the result of convention, or whether the twelve reguli were the heads of the twelve Greater Nomes, can- not be ascertained. From the commencement of this period, however, we enter upon a definite chronology. History is composed of credible facts, and the lists of the kings are conformable with the monuments, PSAMMETICHUS I., who reigned 54 years, B. c. 671 617, supplanted the dodecarchy by the aid of Greek and Phoenician auxiliaries, and in Lower Egypt at least founded a cosmopolite kingdom, such as the Ptolemies established three centuries after- wards. (Diod. i. 66 ; Herod, i. 171 ; Polyaen. Strat. vii. 3.) His Ionian and Carian or Milesian auxiliu - ries he settled in a district on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, between the Mediterranean and the Bubastite Nome; while the Phoenicians who had helped him to the throne were probably located near Memphis, in an allotment called the Tyrian camp. (Herod, ii. 112.) The native militia were now superseded by Hellenic regular soldiers, and a por- tion at least of the war-caste migrated, in dudgeon at this preference, to Aethiopia. Historians have too readily taken for granted that this was a mi gration of the whole body of the Hermotybians and Calasirians. It was more probably a revolt of the southern ganisons on the Nubian frontier. In the reign of Psammetichus was also instituted the easte of interpreters or dragomans between the natives and foreigners ; and it strikingly marks the decline of the ancient system that Psammetichus caused his own sons to be instructed in the learning of the Greeks (Diod. i. 67). j\ iny* Araon tween nnmnl in u s? .1 saie S AEGYPTUS. Psammetichus was succeeded by his son NECO or NKCHAO, the Pharaoh Necho of the second book of Kings, who reigned 16 years, B. c. 617 601. ng the greatest of bis works was the canal bc- the Kile and the Red Sea. Whether lie completed it or not is doubtful ; in the reign of Darius it was, however, certainly open for vrsi-rls of large burden, and was finished by the Ptolemies (Plin. vi. 33). Modern surveys have ascertained that this canal left the Nile in the neighbourhood of the modern town of Belbeis probably the BubaMis Agria of the Greeks and ran E. and S. to Suez. (llt-rod. iv. 42; Diod. i. 33.) At Neco's command also the Phoenicians undertook the circumnavigation of the African peninsula. The success of this en- rise is problematical, but, as Major Rcnnell, in Essay on the Geography of Herodotus, lias shown, by no means impossible. In the reign of Neelio Egypt came into direct collision wit lithe Baby- 1'Hiian empire, at that time rising upon the ruins of tin- Assyrian. Egypt seems to have been in alliance with the latter, since about the time when Cyaxares med the siege of Niniveh, Necho marched to- the Euphrates, apparently to relieve the be- uered city. Judah was then in league with ivlon; and its king Josiah threw himself in the iy of Necho, and was defeated by him at Megiddo. The Jewish monarch died of his wounds at Jeru- salem, and the conqueror entered the holy city, pro- bly the Cadytis of Herodotus (ii. 159, iii. 5). ho deposed and sent captive to Egypt Jehoahaz, son and successor of Josiah, made his younger brother Eliakim king in his stead, and imposed an annual tribute on Judaea. The Judaean monarchs were four years later avenged. From the plains of Carchemish or Circcsium, on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, Neco fled to Egypt, leaving all his Asiatic conquests to the victor Nebuchadnezzar. Necho was succeeded by his son PSAMMIS, who reigned 6 years, B. c. 601 595, and Psammis by his son APKIES, the Uaphris of the monuments, and the Pharaoh Hophra of the Scriptures, who reigned 25 years, B. c. 595 570. The earlier years of Apries were signalised by his victories over the Tyrians, Sidonians, Phoenicians, and Cypriots. But these acquisitions were transient, and there is reason to suppose that Lower Egypt at least was invaded by Nebuchadnezzar (Strab. p. 687; Jere- xliii. 12, xlvi. 13 26 ; Ezekiel, xxix). experienced even greater calamities on his frontier, a quarter from which Egypt had been hitherto unassailed. The Greeks of Cyrene exterminated his army at Irasa (Ain Ersen), be- tween the bay of Bomba and Cyrene. His defeat, and the cruelties to which it led, rendered him odious to his subjects. A fortunate soldier, Amasis or Amosis, deposed, succeeded, and finally strangled him. AMASIS reigned 44 years, B. c. 570 526. He is the first Egyptian monarch with whose personal character we have any acquaintance. His friend- ship with Polycrates iswell known. Hewas ashrewd, active, and intelligent sovereign, who possessed the love of the soldiers and the people, and nearly dis- regarded the rules and ceremonies of the priests. His reign was eminently prosperous, and his death occurred just in time to prevent his witnessing the subjugation of Egypt by the Persians under Cam- byses, which took place in the reign of his son PSAM- MENITUS (B.C. 525), who sat upon the throne only 6 months. invaaea western AEGYPTUS. 45 2. Persian Era. The 27th dynasty contains 8 Persian kings, and extends over a period of 124 years, B. c. 525 401. Egypt became a satrapy, not, however, without much reluctation and various revolutions; for be- tween the worshippers of animals and the wor- shippers of fire a religious antipathy subsisted which a ted the pressure of conquest and the burden of subjection. The Persians indeed were the only masters of Egypt who assailed by violence, as well as regarded with contempt, its religious and politieal institutions. From this cause, no less than from the numerous Greek and Hebrew settlers in the Delta, the Macedonian conqueror, in B. c. 332, found scarcely any impediment to his occupation of Egypt. During the 27th dynasty Egypt became, for tho first time, involved in European politics. A revolt, which commenced in the reign of Darius, B. c. 488, and which delayed for three years the second Per- sian invasion of Greece, was repressed by his son and successor Xerxes, in B. c. 486. A second re- volt, in B. c. 462, was put down, in B. c. 456, by the satrap Megabyzus ; but its leader Inaros, son of Psammitichus, was aided by the Athenians. The 28th dynasty contains only one name, that of AMYUTAEUS the Saite. In his reign of six years, through some unexplained weakness in Persia, Egypt regained its independence, for monuments at Karnak and Eilethya prove that the Suite monarch was king of the whole land. Amyrtaeus was mag- nificently interred in a sarcophagus of green breccia, which, after passing from an Egyptian tomb to a Greek basilica, from a Greek basilica to a Moslem mosque, finally rests in the British Museum. The 29th dynasty contained four kings, of whom hardly any thing is related, and the 30th dynasty three kings, NECTANEBUS I., TACHOS, and NECTANE- BUS II., who are better known from their con- nection with Grecian history. In the reign of Nectanebus II., and in the year B. c. 350, Egypt was reconquered by Bagoas and Mentor, the gene- rals of Darius Ochus, and the last Pharaoh of the 30 dynasties retired an exile into Aethiopia. The succession of Egyptian monarchs, embracing a pe- riod of 3553 years, is unexampled in history. Upon the annals of their successors the Ptolemies we shall not however enter, since the lives of the Macedonian kings are given in the Dictionary of Biography (art. Ptolemaeus). It will suffice in this place to make a few general remarks upon the political aspect of Egypt under its Greek and Roman masters. 3. Macedonian or Hellenic Era. Many causes rendered the accession of a Greek dynasty an easy and even a welcome transition to the Egyptian people. In the decline of the native monarchy, they had suffered much from anarchy and civil wars. For two centuries the yoke of Persia had pressed heavily upon their trade, agriculture and religion: their wealth had been drained, their chil- dren enslaved, their ceremonial and national prejudices systematically outraged by their rulers. For the advent of the Greeks a gradual preparation had been made since the reign of Psammetichus. Hellenic colonies had penetrated to the Great Oasis and the coast of the Red Sea. Greek travellers and philo- sophers had explored the Thebaid, and Greek immi- grants had established numerous colonies in the Delta. Lower Egypt too had admitted Spartans and Athenians alternately as the allies of the Saite and Memphite sovereigns : so that when in B. c. 332 46 AEGYPTUS. Alexander reached Pelusium, that city opened its gates to him, and his march to Memphis resembled the peaceful progress of a native king. The regulations which Alexander made for the government of his new conquest were equally wise and popular: and as they were generally adopted by his successors the Lagidae, they may be mentioned in this place. The Egyptians were governed by their own laws. The privileges of the priests and their exemption from land-tax were secured to them, and they were encouraged, if not assisted, to repair the temples, and to restore the ancient ritual. Already in the reign of Ptolemy Soter the inner-chamber of the Temple of Karnak was rebuilt, and the name of Philip Arrhidaeus, the son of Alexander, inscribed upon it. Alexander himself offered sacrifice to Apis at Memphis, and assumed the titles of " Son of Ammon " and " Beloved of Ammon "; and when the sacred Bull died of old age Ptolemy I. bestowed fifty talents upon his funeral. Euergetes, the third mo- narch of the Lagid house, enlarged the temple of Karnak, added to that of Ammon in the Great Oasis, and erected smaller shrines to Osiris at Canobus, and to Leto, at Esne or Latopohs. The structures of the Ptolemies will be noticed under the names of the various places which they restored or adorned. It would have been impolitic to reinstate the ancient militia of Egypt, which indeed had long been superseded "by a standing army or Greek mercenaries. Under the most despotic of the Ptolemies, however, we meet with few instances of military oppression, and these rarely extended beyond the suburbs of Alexandria or the frontiers of the Delta. Alexander established two principal garrisons, one at Pelusium, as the key of Egypt, and another at Memphis, as the capital of the Lower Country. Subsequently Parembole in Nubia, Elephantine, and the Greek city of Ptolemais in the Thebaid were occupied by Macedonian troops. The civil jurisdiction he divided between two nom- archies or judgeships, and he appointed as nomarchs two native Egyptians, Doloaspis and Petisis. (Arrian, Anab. iii. 5. 2.) Like their predecessors the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies aspired to extend their power over Palestine and Syria, and protracted wars were the results of their contests with the Seleucid longs. But even these campaigns tended to the augmentation of the Egyptian navy; and, in consequence of the foundation of Alex- andria the country possessed one of the strongest and most capacious havens in the Mediterranean. Be- coming a maritime, the Egyptians became also an actively commercial nation, and exported corn, pa- pyrus, linen, and the articles of their Libyan and Indian traffic to western Asia and Europe. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave a new impulse to the internal trade of the Nile-valley, in the first place, by es- tablishing a system of police from Cercasorum to Syene, and, in the next, by completing the canal which Necho and Darius Hystaspis had begun, from the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Arsinoe at the head of the Red Sea. (Plin. vi. 33 ; Herod, ii. 158) [BUBASTIS; ARSINOE]. He also rebuilt the old port of Aennum or Cosseir [PHILOTERA], and improved the caravan route from the interior by erecting inns and cisterns hi the desert between Coptos and Berenice. The monuments of Lower Nubia attest the wealth and enterprise of the Lagid monarchs. Egypt indeed did not regain under this family the splendour which it had enjoyed under Thoutmosis and Eameses III., but it jvas perhaps more uniformly prosperous, and less exposed to in- AEGYPTUS. vasion from Gyrene and Arabia than it had ever been since the 18th dynasty occupied the throne of Menes. In one respect the amalgamation of the Egyptians with their conquerors was incomplete. The Greeks were always the dominant class. The children of mixed marriages were declared by the Macedonian laws to be Egyptian not Greek. They were incapable of the highest offices in the state or the army, and worshipped Osiris and Isis, rather than Zeus or Hera. Thus, according to Hellenic prejudices, they were regarded as barbarian or at most as Perioeci, and not as full citizens or freemen. To this distinc- tion may in part be ascribed the facility with -which both races subsequently submitted to the auhority of the Roman emperors. The ancient divisions of the Upper and Lower kingdoms were under the Macedonian dynasty re- vived but inverted. Power, population, wealth and enterprise were drawn down to the Delta and to the space between its chief cities Memphis and Alexandria. The Thebaid gradually declined. Its temples wer indeed restored : and its pompous hierarchy recovered much of their influence. But the rites of religion could not compete with the activity of commerce. The Greek and Hebrew colonists of the Delta absorbed the vitality of the land: and long before the Romans converted Egypt into a province of the empire, the Nubians and Arabs had encroached upon the upper country, and the ancient Diospolite region partly re- turned to the waste, and partly displayed a super- annuated grandeur, in striking contrast with the busy and productive energy of the Lower Country. This phenomenon is illustrated by the mummies which are found in the tombs of Memphis and the catacombs of Thebes respectively. Of one hundred mummies taken from the latter, about twenty show an European origin, while of every hundred derived from the necropolite receptacles of the former, seventy have lost their Coptic peculiarities (Sharpe, History of Egypt, p. 133, 2nd ed.). The Delta had, in fact, become a cosmopolite region, replenished from Syria and Greece, and brought into contact with general civilisation. The Thebaid remained stationary, and reverted to its ancient Aethiopian type, neglecting or incapable of foreign admixture. 4. Roman Era. For more than a century previous to B. c. 30 the family and government of the Lagid house had been on the decline. It was rather the jealousy of the Roman senate which dreaded to see one of its own members an Egyptian proconsul, than its own integral strength, which delayed the conversion of the Nile- valley into a Roman province. When however the Roman commonwealth had passed into a monarchy, and the final struggle between Antonius and Augustus had been decided by the surrender of Alexandria, Egypt ceased to be an independent kingdom. The regulations which Augustus made for his new ac- quisition manifested at once his sense of its value, and his vigilance against intrusion. Egypt became properly a province neither of the senate nor the em- peror. It was thenceforth governed by a prefect, called Praefectus Aegypti, afterwards Praefectus Angus - talis, immediately appointed by the Caesar and re- sponsible to him alone. The prefect was taken from the equestrian order: and no senator was permitted to set foot in Egypt without special imperial license. (Tac. Ann. ii. 59, Hist ii. 74 ; Dion Cass. li. 17 ; Ar- rian, Anab. iii. 5.) Even after Diocletian had re- AEGYPTUS. modelled or abolished nearly all the other institutions of the empire, tin's interdict remained in force. The dependence of Egypt was therefore more absolute and direct than that of any other province of Rome. Its difficulty of access, and the facility which it presented to an enterprising and ambitious governor to render himself independent, dictated these stringent pre- cautions. The prefect, however, possessed the same powers as the other provincial governors, although he did not receive the fasces and the other insig- nia of the latter. (Tac. Ann. xii. 60; Poll. Trig. Tyr. 22.) Augustus made very h'ttle change in the internal government of Egypt. It was divided into three great districts called Epistrateyiae (e7ri. 67 68 it was required to put down the rebellion of Judaea. The principal commotions of Egypt were, indeed, caused by the common hostility of the Greek and Hebrew popu- lation. This, generally confined to the streets of Alexandria, sometimes raged in the Delta also, and in the reign of Hadrian demanded the imperial inter- ference to suppress. The Jews, indeed, were very numerous in Egypt, especially in the open country ; and after the destruction of Jerusalem, their prin- cipal temple was at Leontopolis. Hadrian (Spar- tian. 14) visited Egypt in the 6th year of his reign, and ascended the Nile as far as Thebes. The most conspicuous monument of this imperial progress was the city of Antinopolis, on the east bank of the Nile, which he raised as a monument to his favourite, the beautiful Antinous. (Dion Cass. Ixix. 16.) In the reign of M. Aurelius, A. D. 166, occurred the first serious rebellion of Egypt against its Roman masters. It is described as a revolt of the native soldiers. But they were probably Arabs who had been drafted into the legions, and whose predatory habits prompted them to desert and resume their wild life in the desert. The revolt lasted nearly four years (A. D. 171 175), and was put down by Avidius Cassius, who then proclaimed himself em- peror of Egypt, and his son Maecianus praetorian prefect. Avidius and his son, however, were put to death by their own troops, and the clemency of the emperor speedily regained the affections of his Egyp- tian subjects. (Capitol. M. Anton. 25.) On the death of Pertinax in A. D. 193, Pescennius Niger, who commanded a legion in Upper Egypt, and had won the favour of the natives by repressing the license of the soldiery, proclaimed himself em- peror. He was defeated and slain at Cyzicus, A. D. 196, and his successful rival the emperor Severus visited the vacant province, and examined the monu- ments at Thebes and Memphis. Severus, however, was unpopular with the Egyptians, as well from his exactions of tribute as from his impolitic derision of the national religion. In the reign of Caracalla, Egyptians for the first tune took their seat in the Roman senate, and the worship of Isis was publicly sanctioned at Rome. (Dion Cass. Ixxvii. 23; Spartian. Sever. 17.) 43 AEGYPTUS. The next important revolution of Egypt was its j temporary occupation by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, in A. D. 269. The Egypto-Greeks were now at the end of six centuries again subject to an Asiatic monarch. But her power lasted only a few months. This invasion, however, stimulated the native popu- lation, now considerably intermingled with Arabs, and they set up, after a few months' submission to Aurelian, a Syrian of Seleucia, named Firmus, as emperor, A. D. 272. ( Vopisc. Firm. 5.) Firmus was succeeded by a rebel chieftain named Domitius Do- mitianus (Zosim. i. 49) ; but both of these pretenders were ultimately crushed by Aurelian. Both Kome and Egypt suffered greatly during this period of anarchy: the one from the irregularity of the supply of corn, the other from the ravages of predatory bands, and from the encroachments of the barbarians on either frontier. In A. D. 276, Probus, who had been military prefect of Egypt, was, on the death of Tacitus, proclaimed emperor by his legions, and their choice was confirmed by the other provinces of the empire. Probus was soon recalled to his former province by the turbulence of the Blemmyes ; and as even Ptolemais, the capital of the Thebaid, was in possession of the insurgents, we may estimate the power of the Arabs in the Nile-valley. So danger- ous, indeed, were these revolts, that Probus deemed his victory over the Blemmyes not unworthy of a triumph. (Vopisc. Prdb. 9, seq.) The reign of Diocletian, A. D. 285, was a period of calamity to Egypt. A century of wars had ren- dered its people able and formidable soldiers; and Achilleus, the leader of the insurgents, was pro- claimed by them emperor. Diocletian personally directed his campaigns, and reduced, after a tedious siege, the cities of Coptos and Busiris. In this reign also the Eoman frontier was withdrawn from Aethio- pia, and restored to Elephantine, whose fortifications were strengthened and garrisons augmented. Ga- lerius and Maximin successively misgoverned Egypt: whose history henceforward becomes little more than a record of a religious persecution. After the time of Constantino, the administration and division of Egypt were completely changed. It was then divided into six provinces: (1) Aegyptus Propria; (2) Augustamnica ; (3) Heptanomis (after- wards Arcadia); (4) Thebais; (5) Libya Inferior; (6) Libya Superior (consisting of the Cyrenaic Pen- tapoh's). The division into nomes lasted till the seventh century after Christ. All the authorities having any relation to the Eoman province of Aegypt are collected by Marquardt, in Becker's Handbuch der Romisctien Alterthumer, vol. iii. pt. i. p. 207, seq. Under theEomans the chief roads in Egypt were six in number. One extended from Contra-Pselcis in Nubia along the eastern bank of the Nile to Babylon opposite Memphis, and thence proceeded by Helio- polis to the point where Trajan's canal entered the Red Sea. A second led from Memphis to Pelusium. A third joined the first at Serapion, and afforded a shorter route across the desert. A fourth went along the western bank of the Nile from Hiera Sy- caminos in Nubia to Alexandria. A fifth reached from Palestine to Alexandria, and ran along the coast of the Mediterranean from Eaphia to Pelusium, joining the fourth at Andropolis. The sixth road led from Coptos on the Nile to Berenice on the Eed Sea, and contained ten stations, each about twenty- five miles apart from one another. The Eoman roads in Egypt are described in the Itinerarium AEGYS. Antonini, which is usually ascribed to the emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus. According to the traditions of the Church, Chris- tianity was introduced into Egypt by the evangelist St. Mark. Its reception and progress must be read in ecclesiastical annals. We can only remark here, that the gloomy and meditative genius of the Egyp- tians was a favourable soil for the growth of heresy; that the Arians and Athanasians shed torrents of blood in their controversies; and that monachism tended nearly as much as civil or religious wars to the depopulation of the Nile-valley. The deserts of the Thebaid, the marshes of the Delta, and the islands formed by the lagoons and estuaries of the Nile, were thronged with convents and hermitages; and the legends of the saints are, in considerable proportion, the growth of Egyptian fancy and asceticism. In the reign of Theodosius I., A. D. 379, the edict which denounced Paganism levelled at one blow the ancient Polytheism of the Nile-valley, and consigned to ruin and neglect all of its temples which had not pre- viously been converted, partially or wholly, into Christian Churches. From this epoch we may regard the history of the Egyptians, as a peculiar people, closed : their only subsequent revolutions hence- forward being their subjugation by Persia in A. D. 618, and their conquest by Amrou, the general of the Khaliph Omar, in A. D. 640. The yoke of Arabia was then finally imposed upon the land of Misraim, and its modern history commences a history of decrepitude and decline until the present century. The sources of information for Egyptian history and geography are of four kinds. (1) Works of geography, such as those of Ptolemy, Strabo, Era- tosthenes, Pliny and Mela. (2) Of history, such as those of the fragments of Manetho, Africanus, the Syncellus, Eusebius, Herodotus and Diodorus already cited. (3) The Arabian chorographers, and (4) the researches of modern travellers and Egyptologers from Kircher to Bunsen and Lepsius; among the former we specially designate the works of the elder Niebuhr, Pococke and Bruce, Burckhardt and Bel- zoni; the splendid collections of De'non and the French savans, 1798; Gau's work on the monuments of Lower Nubia, and Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 6 vols. 8vo. To these may be added, as summaries of the writings of travellers and scholars, Heeren's Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Cartha- ginians, Aethiopians, and Egyptians, 2 vols. 8vo. Engl. trans. 1838; the recent work, Kenrick's An- cient Egypt, 2 vols. 8vo. 1850; and the two volumes in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, entitled The British Museum, Egyptian Antiquities, which, under an unpretending form, contain a fund of sound and various information. It would be easy to extend this catalogue of authorities; but the general reader will find all he seeks in the authors we have enumerated. [W. B. D.] AEGYS (Afyus: Eth. Alyvdrys, Paus.; Alyvevs, Theopomp. ap. Steph. B. s. v.), a town of Laconia, on the frontiers of Arcadia, originally belonged to the Arcadians, but was conquered at an early period by Charilaus, the reputed nephew of Lycurgus, and annexed to Laconia. Its territory, called Aegytis (Aryims), appears to have been originally of some extent, and to have included all the villages in the districts of Maleatis and Cromitis. Even at the time of the foundation of Megalopolis, the inhabitants of these Arcadian districts, comprising Scirtonium, Malea, Cromi, Belbina, and Leuctrum, continued AELANA. to be called Aegytae. The position of Apgys uncertain. Lcake places it at Kamdra, near tin: sources of the river Xerilo, the ancient Gannon. (I'.-ius. Hi. 2. 5, viii. 27. 4, 34. 5; Strab. p. 446; Pol. ii. 54; Leake, Peloponnesiaca, p. 234.) AELANA (TO A?Aai/a, Strab. p. 768; AI'ACU/TJ, Joseph. Ant. viii. 6. 4; 'EAava, Ptol. v. 17. $ 1 ; Afaavov, Steph. B. s.v.\ AtAas, Procop. B. Pers\ i. 19 ; in (X T. ELATH, in LXX. AtAafl, AtAw>: //*. AJAiai'iTTjs: Akaba), an Idumaean town in Arabia IVtrao.-i, situated at the head of the eastern gulf of 1lie Red Sea, which. was called after this town Aela- niticiuj Sinus. It was situated 10 miles E. of Petra (Ku.scb. Onom. s. v. 'HAci0), and 150 miles SE. of (la/a (Plin. v. 11. S..12). It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, together with the other cities of Idumaea, by David (2 Sam. viii. 14), and was one of the harbours on the Red Sea, from which the fleet of Solomon sailed.to Ophir (1 Kings, ix. 26 ; 2 Chron. viii. 17); but it subsequently revolted from the Jews, and became independent. (2 Kings, xiv. 22.) It continued to be a place of commercial importance under the Romans, and was the head quarters of the t fiith legion. (Hieron, Onom.; Not. Imp.) It was the resilience of a Christian bishop, and is mentioned by I'ronipius in the sixth century as inhabited by Jews, who, after having been for a long time independent, had become subject to the Romans in the reign, of lust inian. (Procop. B. Pers. i. 19.) The site of Aelana is now occupied by a fortress called Akaba, in which a garrison is stationed, because it lies on the route of the Egyptian pilgrims to Mecca. (Nie- Imhr, Beschreibung von Arabien, p. 400; Ruppel, lieise in Nubien, p. 248 ; Laborde, Journey through Arabia Petraea, vol. i. p. 11.6.) AELANFTIGUS SINUS. [ARABICUS SINUS.] AE'LIA CAPITOLI'NA. [JERUSALEM.] AE'MQDAE or HAE'MODAE, the Shetland Islands (Mela, iii. 6), described by Pliny (iv. 16. 30), as a group of seven. The islands Ocitis (*O/cms), and Dumna (Aou^ivo) mentioned by Pto- lemy (ii. 3. 31) were apparently part of this group, and answer respectively to St. Ronaldsha and liny. Camden and the elder antiquaries, however, refer the Aemodae to the Baltic Sea. [W. B. D.] AEMO'NA, HAEMO'NA, EMO'NA (*H/*a, "HfMCtiva, Orelli, Inscript. 72 ; 'H/xa, Herodian. via. 1 : Eth. Aemonensis : Laybach), a strongly fortified town with a well-frequented market in Pannonia, situated on the river Saave and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia, answering to the modern Laybach, the capital of Illyria. Laybach, however, as the Roman remains around its walls attest, does not equal in extent the ancient Aemona. According to tradition, the Argonauts were the founders of Aemona (Zosim. v. 29). It subse- quently became a Roman colony with the title of Julia Augusta (Plin. iv. 21. 28), and its name occurs on coins and inscriptions (PtoL ii. 15. 7; Orelli, Inscript. nos. 71, 72, et alib.). [W.B.D.] AENA'RIA (AtVopia, App.), called by the Greeks PITHECU'SA (m07jKoGland of Lesbos. The Aeolian migration is generally re- piv.M'iited as the first of the series of movements produced by the irruption of the Aeolians into Boeotia, and of the Dorians into Peloponnesus. The Achaeans, who had been driven from their homes in the Peloponnesus by the Dorians, were believed to have been joined in Boeotia by a part of the ancient inhabitants of Boeotia and of their Aeolian conquerors. The latter seem to have been predominant in influence, for from them the migration was called the Aeolian, and sometimes the Boeotian. An account of the early settlements and migrations of the Aeolians is given at length by Thirlwall, to which we must refer our readers for details and authorities. {Hist, of Greece, vol. i. p. 88, seq. vol. ii. p. 82, seq.; comp. Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. i. p. 145, seq., vol. ii. p. 26, seq.) The Aeolian dialect of the Greek lan- guage comprised several subordinate modifications ; but the variety established by the colonists in Lesbos and on the opposite coasts of Asia, became eventually its popular standard, having been carried to perfection by the Lesbian school of lyric poetry. (Mure, Ilittory of the Language, cfc. of Greece, vol. i. p. 108, seq.) Thus we find the Roman poets calling Sappho Aeolia puella (Hor. Carm. iv. 9. 12), and the lyric poetry of Alcaeus and Sappho A eolium carmen, Aeolia fides and Aeolia lyra. (Hor. Carm. iii. 30. 13, ii. 13. 24; Ov. Her. xv. 200.) AEO'LIAE I'NSULAE (A/oAfSes vyffoi, Diod. Al6\ov yrjffoi, Thue. Strab.), a group of volcanic islands, lying in the Tyrrhenian Sea to the north of Sicily, between that island and the coast of Lucania. They derived the name of Aeolian from some fancied connection with the fabulous island of Aeolus men- tioned by Homer in the Odyssey (x. 1, &c.), but they were also frequently termed VULCANIAE or HEPHAESTIAE, from their volcanic character, which was ascribed to the subterranean operations of Vulcan, as well as LlPARAEAN (cu Anrapaiwv VT\CTOI, Strab. ii. p. 123), from LIPARA, the largest and most im- portant among them, from which they still derive the of the Lipari Islands. Ancient authors generally agree in reckoning them as seven in number (Strab. vi. p. 275 ; Plin. iii. 8. 14; Scymn. Ch. 255; Diod. v. 7; Mela, ii. 7; Dionys. Perieget. 465; Schol. ad Apoll. Rhod. iii. *1), which is correct, if the smaller islets be omitted. But there is considerable diversity with regard to their names, and the confusion has been greatly aug- mented by some modern geographers. They are enu- merated as follows by Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny: 1. LIPARA, still called Lipari; the most con- siderable of the seven, and the only one which con- tained a town of any importance. [LIPARA.] 2. HIEHA, situated between Lipara and the coast of Sicily. Its original name according to Strabo was Thermessa (ep/teo-o-a), or, as Pliny writes it, Therasia, but it was commonly known to the Greeks as 'If pa or 'lepa 'HQaiffTOv, being considered sacred to Vulcan on account of the volcanic phenomena which it exhibited. For the same reason it was called by AEOLIAE INSULAE. 51 nT Ar the Romans VULCANI INSULA, from whence its mo- dern appellation of Vulcano. It is the southern- most of the whole group, and is distant only 12 G. miles from Capo Calavct, the nearest point on the coast of Sicily. 3. STRONGYLE (2,Tpoyyv\r), now Stromboli), so called from its general roundness of form (Strab. /. c. ; Lucil. Aetna, 431): the northernmost of the islands, and like Hiera an active volcano. 4. DIDYME (AiSy/wj), now called Salina, or Isola delle Saline, is next to Lipara the largest of the whole group. Its ancient name was derived (as Strabo expressly tells us, vi. p. 276), from its form, which circumstance leaves no doubt of its being the same with the modern Salina, that island being conspicuous for two high conical mountains which rise to a height of 3,500 feet (Smyth's Sicily, p. 272 ; Ferrara, Campi Flcgrei delta Sicilia, p. 243 ; Daubeny, On Volcanoes, p. 262). Groskurd (ad Strab. I. c.), Mannert, and Forbiger, have erroneously identified Didyme with Panaria, and thus thrown the whole subject into confusion. It is distant only three miles NW. from Lipara. 5. PHOENICUSA ($oivtKovai"m), Hera- cleia ('Hpa/cAei'a),and Attea ("Arrea, Ajasmat-koi). Coryphantis and Heracleia once belonged to the Mytilenaeans. Herodotus (i. 149) describes the tract of country which these Aeolians possessed, as .superior in fertility to the country occupied by the cities of the Ionian confederation, but inferior in climate. He enumerates the following 11 cities: Cume, called Phriconis; Lerissae, Neon Teichos, Temnus, Cilia, Notium, Aegiroessa, Pitane, Ae- gaeae, Myrina, and Grynexa. Smyrna, which was originally one of them, and made the number 12, fell into the hands of the lonians. Herodotus says, that these 11 were all the Aeolian cities on the mainland, except those in the Ida; " for these are separated" (i. 151); and in another place (v. 122) Herodotus calls those people Aeolians who in- habited the Ilias, or district of Ilium. [G. L.] AEPEIA (Afireia: Eth. A/TTCCITTJS). 1. One of the seven Messenian towns, offered by Agamemnon to Achilles, is supposed by Strabo to be the same AEQUI. 53 as Thuria, and by Pausanias the same as Corone. (Horn. //. ix. 152; Strab. p. 360; Paus. iv. 34. 5.) 2. A town in Cyprus, situated on a mountain, the ruler of which is said to have removed to the plain, upon the advice of Solon, and to have named the new town Soli in honour of the Athenian. There is still a place, called Epe, upon the mountain above tle ruins of Soli. (Plut. Sol 26; Steph. B. s. v., Engel, Kypros, vol. i. p. 75.) AEPY (A.lnv: Eth. AnrurTjs), a town in Elis, so called from its lofty situation, is mentioned by Homer, and is probably the same as the Triphylian town Kpeium ("H^moy, "ETTIOV, AiVfoy), which stood be- tween Macistus and Heraea. Leake places it on the high peaked mountain which lies between the villages i if I 'rind and Smerrtft, about 6 miles in direct distance from Olympia. Boblaye supposes it to occupy the site of Jlcllenista, the name of some ruins on a hill between Plalianu and Barakou. (Horn. //. ii. 592; Xen. Jfell. iii. 2. 30; Pol. iv. 77. 9, iv. 80. 13; Strab. p. 349; Steph. B. s. v.; Stat. Theb. iv. 180; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 206; Boblaye, Recherchcs, &c., p. 136.) AEQUI, AEQUI'CULI or AEQUICULA'NI (A?/coi and Afoouoi, Strab.; Alxavoi, Dion. Hal.; At/coiuKAot, Ptol.; Afai/iAot, Diod.), one of the most ancient and warlike nations of Italy, who play a conspicuous part in the early history of Rome. They inhabited the mountainous district around the upper valley of the Anio, and extending from thence to the Lake Fucinus, between the Latins and the, Marsi, and adjoining theHernici on the east, and the Sabines on the west. Their territory was subse- quently inchided in Latium, in the more extended sense given to that name under the Roman empire (Strab. v. p. 228, 231). There appears no doubt that the AEQUICULI or AEQUICOLI are the same people with the AEQUI, though in the usage of later times the former name was restricted to the inhabit- ants of the more central and lofty vallies of the. Apennines, while those who approached the borders of the Latin plain, and whose constant wars with the Romans have made them so familiarly known to us, uniformly appear under the name of Aequi. It is probable that their original abode was in the high- land districts, to which we find them again limited at a later period of their history. The Aequiculi are forcibly described by Virgil as a nation of rude mountaineers, addicted to the chase and to predatory habits, by which they sought to supply the defi- ciencies of their rugged and barren soil (Virg. Aen. vii. 747; Sil. Ital. viii. 371; Ovid. Fast. iii. 93). As the only town he assigns to them is Nersae, the site of which is unknown, there is some uncertainty as to the geographical position of the people of whom he is speaking, but he appears to place them next to the Marsians. Strabo speaks of them in one passage as adjoining the Sabines near "Cures, in another as bordering on the Latin Way (v. pp. 23 1 , 237) : both of which statements are correct, if the name be taken in its widest signification. The form AEQUICULANI first appears in Puny (iii. 12. 17), who however uses Aequiculi also as equivalent to it : he appears to restrict the term to the inhabitants of the vallies bordering on the Marsi, and the only towns he assigns to them are Carseoli and Cliternia At a later period the name appears to have been almost confined to the population of the upper valley of the Salto, between Reate and the Luke Fucinus, a district which still retains the name of Cicolano, evidently a corruption from Aequiculanum. K 3 54 AEQUI. No indication is found in any ancient author of their origin or descent: but their constant associa- tion with the Volscians would lead us to refer them to a common stock with that nation, and this cir- cumstance, as well as their position in the rugged upland districts of the Apennines, renders it probable that they belonged to the great Oscan or Ausonian race, which, so far as our researches can extend, may be regarded as the primeval population of a large part of central Italy. They appear to have received at a later period a considerable amount of Sabine 'influence, and probably some admixture with that race, especially where the two nations bordered on one another: but there is no ground for assuming any community of origin (Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 72; Abeken, Mittel Italien, pp. 46, 47, 84). The Aequians first appear in Roman history as occupying the rugged mountain district at the back of Tibur and Praeiieste (both of which always con- tinued to be Latin towns), and extending from thence to the confines of the Hernicans, and the valley of the Trerus or Sacco. But they gradually encroached upon their Latin neighbours, and ex- tended their power to the mountain front immediately above the plains of Latium. Thus Bola, which was originally a Latin town, was occupied by them for a considerable period (Liv. iv. 49) : and though they were never able to reduce the strong fortress of Praeneste, they continually crossed the valley which separated them from the Alban hills and occupied the heights of Mt. Algidus. The great development of their power was coincident with that of the Vol- scians, with whom they were so constantly asso- ciated, that it is probable that the names and operations of the two nations have frequently been confounded. Thus Niebuhr has pointed out that the conquests assigned by the legendary history to Coriolanus, doubtless represent not only those of the Volscians, but of the Aequians also : and the " cas- tellumi ad lacum Fucinum," which Livy describes (iv. 57) as taken from the Volscians in B. c. 405, must in all probability have been an Aequian fortress (Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 72, vol. ii. pp. 244, 259). It is impossible here to recapitulate the endless petty wars between the Aequians and Romans : the fol- lowing brief summary will supply a general outline of their principal features. The first mention of the Aequi in Roman history is during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus*, who waged war with them with great success, and re- duced them to at least a nominal submission (Strab. v. p. 231 ; Cic.de RepAL 20). The second Tarquin is also mentioned as having concluded a peace with them, which may perhaps refer to the same trans- action (Liv. i. 55 ; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 359). But it was not till after the fall of the Roman monarchy that they appear in their more formidable aspect. In B. c. 494 they are first mentioned as invading the territory of the Latins, which led that people to apply for assistance to Rome : and from this time forth the wars between the Aequians and Volscians on the one side, and the Romans assisted by the Latins and Hernicans on the other, were events of almost regular and annual recurrence (" statum jam * A tradition, strangely at variance with the other accounts of their habits and character, repre- sents them as the people from whom the Romans derived the Jus Fetiale (Liv. i. 32 ; Dion. Hal. ii. 72). Others with more plausibility referred this to the Aequi Falisci (Serv. ad Aen. vii. 695). AEQUI. ac prope solenne in singulos annos bellum," Liv. iii. 15). Notwithstanding the exaggerations and poetical embellishments with which the history of these wars has been disguised, we may discern pretty clearly three different periods or phases into which they may be divided. 1. From B. c. 494 to about the time of the Decemvirate B. c. 450 was the epoch of the greatest power and successes of the Aequians. In B. c. 463 they are first mentioned as encamping on Mount Algidus, which from thenceforth became the constant scene of the conflicts between them and the Romans: and it seems certain that during tin's period the Latin towns of Bola, Vitellia, Corbio, La- bicum, and Pedum fell into their hands. The alleged victory of Cincinnatus in B. c. 458, on which so much stress has been laid by some later writers (Floras i. 11), appears to have in reality done little to check their progress. 2. From B. c. 450 to the invasion of the Gauls their arms were comparatively unsuccessful: and though we find them still con- tending on equal terms with the Romans and with many vicissitudes of fortune, it is clear that on the whole they had lost ground. The great victory gamed over them by the dictator A. Postumius Tu- bertus in B. c. 428 may probably be regarded as the turning-point of their fortunes (Liv. iv. 26 29 ; Diod. xii. 64; Ovid. Fast. vi. 721 ; Niebuhr, vol. ii. p. 454) : and the year B. c. 415 is the last in which we find them occupying their customary position on Mount Algidus (Liv. iv. 45). It is not improbable, as suggested by Niebuhr, that the growing power of the Samnites, who were pressing on the Volscians upon the opposite side, may have drawn off the forces of the Aequians also to the support of their allies, and thus rendered them less able to cope with the power of Rome. But it is certain that before the end of this period most of the towns which they had conquered from the Latins had been again wrested from then: hands. 3. After the invasion of the Gauls the Aequians appear again in the field, but with greatly diminished resources: probably they suffered severely from the successive swarms of barbarian invaders which swept over this part of Italy : and after two unsuccessful campaigns in B. c. 386 and 385 they appeal* to have abandoned the contest as hopeless : nor does their name again ap- pear hi Roman history for the space of above 80 years. But in B. c. 304 the fate of their neigh- bours the Hernicans aroused them to a last struggle, which terminated in their total defeat and subjection. Their towns fell one after another into the hands of the victorious Romans, and the Aequian nation (says Livy) was almost utterly exterminated (Liv. ix. 45). This expression is however certainly exaggerated, for we find them again having recourse to arms twice within the next few years, though on both occasions without success (Liv. x. 1, 9). It was probably after the last of these attempts that they were ad- mitted to the rights of Roman citizens : and became included in the two new tribes, the Aniensis and Te- rentina, which were created at this period (Cic. de Off. i. 11; Liv. x. 9; Niebuhr, vol. iii. p. 267). From this tune the name of the Aequi altogether disappears from history, and would seem to have fallen into disuse, being probably merged in that of the Latins : but those of Aequiculi and Aequicu- lani still occur for the inhabitants of the upland and more secluded vallies which were not iucluded within the limits of Latium, but belonged to the fourth region of Augustus: and afterwardfj to the province called Valeria. In Imperial times we even find tb oi H\ I I AEQUINOCTIUM. the Aequiculani in tlie valley of the Salto con- stituting a regular municipal body, so that " Res Publica Aequiculanorum " and a " Municipium Ae- ijuicdluiioruni " are found in inscriptions of that period (Orell. no. 3931; Ann. dell. Jnst. vol. vi. p. Ill, not.). Probably this was a mere aggregation of scattered villages and hamlets such as are still found in the district of the Cicolano. In the Liber Coloniarum (p. 255) we find mention of the " Ecicy- lanus ager," evidently a coi-ruption of Aequiculanus, aa is shown by the recurrence of the same form in charters and documents of the middle ages (Moisten. not. ad Cluver. p. 156). It is not a little remarkable that the names of ly any cities belonging to the Aequians have been transmitted to us. Livy tells us that in the decisive campaign of B.C. 304, forty-one Aequian towns were taken by the Roman consuls (ix. 45): but he mentions none of them by name, and from the rase and rapidity with which they were reduced, it is probable that they were places of little importance. Many of the smaller towns and villages now scat- fcerad in the hill country between the vallies of the Sacco and the Anio probably occupy ancient sites : two of these, Civitella and Olevano, present remains of ancient walls and substructions of rude polygonal masonry, which may probably be referred to a very early period (Abeken, Mittel Italien, pp. 140, 147; JBuUttt, dt-ll In*t. 1841, p. 49). The numerous 1 of ancient cities found in the valley of the 'ttlto, may also belong hi many instances to the Aequians, rather than the Aborigines, to whom they have been generally referred. The only towns ex- pressly assigned to the Aequiculi by Pliny and Pto- lemy are CARSEOLI in the upper valley of the Turano, and CLITERNIA in that of the Salto. To these may be added ALBA FUCENSIS, which we are expressly told by Livy was founded in the territory of the Aequians, though on account of its superior im- portance, Pliny ranks the Albenses as a separate people (Pliny iii. 12. 17; Ptol.iii. l. 56; Liv. x. 1). YAK [A, which is assigned to the Aequians by several modem writers, appears to have been properly a Sabine town. NERSAE, mentioned by Virgil ( Aen. vii. 744) as the chief place of the Aequiculi, is not noticed by any other writer, and its site is wholly uncertain. Besides these, Pliny (I. c.) mentions the Comini, Tadiates, Caedici, and Alfaterni as towns or communities of the Aequiculi, which had ceased to exist in his time: all four names are otherwise wholly unknown. [E. H. B.] AEQUINOCTIUM or AEQUINOC'TI AE (Fis- chament), a Roman fort in Upper Pannonia, situ- ated upon the Danube, and according to the Notitia Imperii, the quarters of a squadron of Dalmatian cavalry. (Tab. Peut.; Itin. Antonin.) [W.B.D.] AEROPUS, a mountain in Greek Illyria, on the river Aous, and opposite to Mount Asnaus. Aeropus probably corresponds to Trebusin, and Asnaus to Nemertzika. (Liv. xxxii. 5 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 389.) AESE'PUS (6 Afar;?), a river of Northern My.sia, mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 825, &c.) as flowing past Zeleia, at the foot of Ida ; and in another passage (//. xii. 21) as one of the streams that flow from Ida. According to Strabo's interpretation of Homer, the Aesepus was tlie eastern boundary of Mysia. The Aesepus is the largest river of Mv.sia. According to Strabo, it rises in Mount Cotylus, one of the summits of Ida (p. G02), and the distance between its source and its outlet is near 500 stadia. AESERNIA. 55 It is joined on the left bank by the Caresus, another stream which flows from Cotylus; and then taking a NE. and N. course, it enters the Propontis, be- tween the mouth of the Granicus and the city of Cyzicus. The modern name appears not to be clearly ascertained. Leake calls it oklu. [G. L.] AESE'RNIA (Aio-fpvia: Eth. Aeserninus; but Pliny and latcrwriters havi Eserninus),a city of Sam- mum, included within the territory of the Pentrian tribe, situated in the valley of the Vulturnus, on a small stream flowing into that river, and distant 14 miles from Venafrum. The Itinerary (in which the name is corruptly written Serni) places it on the road from Aufidena to Bovianum, at the distance of 28 M. P. from the former, and 18 from the latter; but the former number is corrupt, as are the distances in the Tabula. (Itin. Ant. p. 102; Tab. Peut.; Plin. iii. 12. 17; Ptol. iii. 1. 67; Sil. Ital. viii. 568.) The modern city of Jsernia retains the ancient site as well as name. The first mention of it in history occurs hi B. c. 295, at which time it had already fallen into the hands of the Romans, together with the whole valley of the Vulturnns. (Liv. x. 31.) After the complete subjugation of the Samnites, a colony, with Latin rights (colonia Latina) was settled there by the Romans in B. c. 264; and this is again mentioned in B. c. 209 as one of the eighteen which remained faithful to Rome at the most trying period of the Second Punic War. (Liv. Epit. xvi. xxvii. 10; Veil. Pat. L 14.) During the Social War it adhered to the Roman cause, and was gallantly de- fended against the Samnite general Vettius Cato, by Marcellus, nor was it till after a long protracted siege that it was compelled by famine to surrender, B. c. 90. Henceforth, it continued in the hands of the confederates ; and at a later period of the contest afforded a shelter to the Samnite leader, Papius Mu- tiius, after his defeat by Sulla. It even became for a time, after the successive faH of Corfinium and Bovianum, the head quarters of the Italian allies. (Liv. Epit. Ixxii, Ixxiiu; Appian. B. C. i. 41, 51; Diod. xxxvii. Exc. Phot. p. 539 ; Sisenna ap. Nonium, p. 70.) At this tune it was evidently a place of importance and a strong fortress, but it was so se- verely punished for its defection by Sulla after the final defeat of the Samnites, that Strabo speaks of it as in his time utterly deserted. (Strab. v. p. 238, 250.) We leam, however, that a colony was sent there by Caesar, and again by Augustus ; but appa- rently with little success, on which account it was re- colonized under Nero. It never, however, enjoyed the rank of a colony, but appears from inscriptions to have been a municipal town of some importance in the time of Trajan and the Antonines. To this period belong the remains of an aqueduct and a fine Roman bridge, still visible; while the lower parts of the modern walls present considerable portions of polygonal construction, which may be assigned either to the ancient Samnite city, or to the first Roman colony. The modern city is still the see of a bishop, and contains about 7000 inhabitants. (Lib. Colon. *pp. 233, 260 ; Zumpt, de Coloniis, pp. 307, 360, COIN OF AESERXIA. E 4 CtJ AES1CA. 392 ; Inscrr. ap. Romanelli, vol. ii. _pp. 470, 471 ; Craven's Abruz&i, vol. ii. p. 83; Hoare's Classical Tour, vol. i. p. 227.) The coins of Aesernia, which are found only in copper, and have the legend AISERNINO, belong to the period of the first Roman colony; the style of their execution attests the influence of the neigh- bouring Campania. (MiUingen, Numismatique de lltalie, p. 218.) [E. H. B.] AE'SICA, was a Eoman frostier castle in the line of Hadrian's rampart, and probably corresponds to the site of Greatchester. It is, however, placed by some antiquaries at the Danish village of Ne- therby, on the river Esk. It is mentioned by George of Ravenna, and in the Notitia Imperil, and was the quarters of Cohors I. Astorurn. [W. B. D.] AESIS (Alv. p. 227; Ptol. iii. 1. 53; Plin. iii. 14. 19.) [E.H.B.] AESI'TAE (Ato-Trott or Ayrftin and northern A>i^i/iia. In describing Aethiopia however, we must distinguish between the employment of the name as an ethnic or generic doignation on the one hand, and, on the other, as restricted, to the province or kingdom of Meroe, or tbe civilised Aethiopia (TJ AiQtoiria. vwep Atyvirrov, or vTrb AtyvirTov, Herod, ii. 146; Ptol. iv. 7.) Aethiopia, as a generic or ethnic designation, comprises the inhabitants of Africa who dwelt be- tween the equator, the Red Sea, and the Atlantic, for Strabo speaks of Hesperian Aethiopians S. of the Pharusii and .Mauri, and Herodotus (iv. 197) de- scribes them as occupying the whole of South Libya. The name Aethiopians is probably Semitic, and if indigenous, certainly so, since the Aethiopic language is pure Semitic. Mr. Salt says that to this day the Abyssinians call themselves Itiopjawan. The Greek geographers however derived the name from atdca &\j/, and applied it to all the sun-burnt dark-com- plexioned races above Egypt. Herodotus (iii. 94, vii. 70) indeed speaks of Aethiopians of Asia, whom he probably so designated from their being of a darker hue than their immediate neighbours. Like the Aethiopians of the Nile, they were tributary to Persia in the reign of Darius. They were a straight-haired race, while their Libyan namesakes were, according to the historian, woolly-haired. But the expression (ou\6rarov Tpfx w M a ) must not be construed too literally, as neither the ancient Aethiopians, as de- pictured on the monuments, nor their modern repre- sentatives, the Bishdries and Shangallas, have, strictly sj >eak ing, the negro-hair. The Asiatic Aethiopians were an equestrian people, wearing crests and head armour made of the hide and manes of horses. From Herodotus (L c.) we infer that they were a Mongolia race, isolated in the steppes of Kurdistan. The boundaries of the African Aethiopians are ne- cessarily indefinite. If they were, as seems probable, the ancestors of the Shangallas, Bisharies,andi Nu- bians, their frontiers may be loosely stated as to the S. the Abyssinian Highlands, to the W. the Libyan desert, to the N. Egypt and Marmarica, and to the K. the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. The boun- daries of Aethiopia Proper, or Meroe, will admit of more particular definition. Their Eastern frontier however being a coast line may be described. It extended from lat. 9 to lat. 24 N. Beginning at the headland of Prasum (Cape del Gardo), where Africa Barbaria commences, we AETHIOPIA. .07 come successively upon the promontory of Rhaptnm ('PaTrrdf opos), Noti Cornu (Norou ittpas), Point, Zingia (Ziyyts), Aromata (apu^a-ruv &Kpov: Cape Guardafui), the easternmost point of Africa; the; headland of EK-phas ('EAecpas: Djebel Fee/tor Cape Felix'); Mnemium (Mi/Tj/ueToj': Cape Calmez), the extreme spur of Mt. Isium ( v l(noj/opos), and, finally, the headland of Bazium, a little to the south of the Sinus Innnundus, or Foul Bay, nearly in the parallel of Syene. The coast line was much indented, and contained some good harbours, Avaliticus Sinus, Aduliticus Sinus, &c., which in the Macedonian era, if not earlier, were the emporia of an active coinmen e both with Arabia and Libya. (Ptol.; Strabo; Plin.) From the headland of Bazium to Mount Zingis, a barrierof primitive rocks intermingled with basalt and limestone extends and rises to a height of 8000 feet in some parts. In the north of this range- \\en- the gold mines, from which the Aethiopians derived an abundance of that metal. Aethiopia was thus se- parated from its coast and harbours, which were ac- cessible from the interior only by certain gorges, tho caravan roads. The western slope of this range was also steep, and the streams were rapid and often dried up in summer. A tract, called the eastern desert, accordingly intervened between the Arabian hills and the Nile and its tributary the Astaboras. The river system of Aethiopia differed indeed consi- derably from that of Egypt. The Nile from its junction with the Astaboras or Tacazze presented, during a course of nearly 700 miles, alternate rapids and cataracts, so that it was scarcely available for inland navigation. Its fertilising overflow was also much restricted by high escarped banks of limestone, and its alluvial deposit rarely extended two miles on either side of the stream, and more frequently covered only a narrow strip. Near the river dhourra or millet was rudely cultivated, and canals now choked up with sand, show that the Aethiopians practised the art of irrigation. Further from the Nile were pastures and thick jungle-forests, where, in the rainy seasons, the gadfly prevailed, and drove the herdsmen and their cattle into the Arabian hills. The jungle and swamps abounded with wild beasts, and elephants were both caught for sale and used as food by the natives. As rain falls scantily in the north, Aethiopia must have contained a considerable portion of waste land beside its eastern and western deserts. In the south the Abyssinian highlands are the cause of greater hu- midity, and consequently of more general fertility. The whole of this region has at present been very imperfectly explored. The natives who have been for centuries carried off by their northern neigh- bours to the slave-markets are hostile to strangers. Bruce and Burckhardt skirted only the northern and southern borders of Aethiopia above Meroe: jungle fever and wild beasts exclude the traveller from the valleys of the Astapus and Astaboras : and the sands have buried most of the cultivable soil of ancient Aethiopia. Yet it is probable that two thousand years have made few changes in the general aspect of its inhabitants. The population of this vague region was a mixture of Arabian and Libyan races in combination with the genuine Aethiopians. The latter were distinguished by well formed and supple limbs, and by a facial outline resembling the Caucasian in all but its in- clination to prominent lips and a somewhat sloping forehead. The elongated Nubian eye, depictured on the monuments, is still seen in the Shangallas. As neither Greeks nor Romans penetrated beyond Napita, 58 AETHIOPIA. the ancient capital of Meroe, our accounts of the various Aethiopian tribes are extremely scanty and perplexing. Their principal divisions were the Colobi, the Blemmyes, the Icthyophagi, the Macrobii, and the Troglodytae. But besides these were various tribes, probably however of the same stock, which were designated according to their peculiar diet and employments. The Rhizophagi or Root-eaters, who fed upon dhourra kneaded with the bark of trees ; the Creophagi, who lived on boiled flesh, and were a pa toral tribe; the Chelenophagi, whose food was shell-fish caught in the saline estuaries; the Acrido- phagi or locust- eaters; the Struthophagi and Ele- phantophagi, who hunted the ostrich and elephant, and some others who, like the inhabitants of the island Gagauda, took their name from a particular locality. The following, however, had a fixed ha- bitation, although we find them occasionally men- tioned at some distance from the probable site of the main tribe. (1.) The BLEMMYES, and MEGABARI, who dwelt between the Arabian hills and the Tacazze were ac- cording to Quatremere de Quincy (Memoires sur TEgypte, ii. p. 127), the ancestors of the modern JBischaries, whom earlier writers denominate .Be/as or Bedjas. They practised a rude kind of agriculture ; but the greater part were herdsmen, hunters, and caravan guides. [BLEMMYES.] (2) ICTHYOPHAGI or fish- eaters, dwelt on the sea coast between the Sinus Adulicus and the Regio Troglodytica, and of all these savage races were probably the least civilised. Ac- cording to Diodorus, the Icthyophagi were a degraded branch of the Troglodytae. Their dwellings were clefts and holes in the rocks, and they did not even possess any fishing implements, but fed on the fish which the ebb left behind. Yet Herodotus informs us (iii. 20) that Cambyses employed Icthyophagi from Elephantine in Upper Egypt, as spies previous to his expedition into the interior an additional proof of the uncertain site and wide dispersion of the Aethiopian tribes. (3) The MACROBH or long-lived Aethiopians. Of thh nation, if it were not the people of Meroe, it is impossible to discover the site. From the account of Herodotus (iii. 17) it appears that they were advanced in civilisation, since they possessed a king, laws, a prison, and a market; understood the working of metals, had gold in abun- dance, and had made some progress in the arts. Yet of agriculture they knew nothing, for they were unac- quainted with bread. Herodotus places them on the shore of the Indian Ocean " at the furthest corner of the earth." But the Persians did not approach their abode, and the Greeks spoke of the Macrobii only from report. Bruce (ii. p. 554) places them to the north of Fazukla, in the lower part of the gold countries, Cuba and Nuba, on both sides of the Nile, and regards them as Shangallas. (4) The TRO- GLODYTAE or cave-dwellers were seated between the Blemmyes and Megabari, and according to Agathar- cides (ap. Diod. i. 30. 3, iii. 32, 33) they were herdsmen with their separate chiefs orprinces of tribes. Their habitations were not merely clefts in the rocks, but carefully wrought vaults, laid out in cloisters and squares, like the catacombs at Naples, whither in the rainy season they retired with their herds. Then- food was milk and clotted blood. In the dry months they occupied the pastures which slope westward to the Astaboras and Nile. 1 The boundaries of Aethiopia Proper (^ AlQioTria virep AtywTTToi/) are more easy to determine. To the south indeed they are uncertain, but probably com- AETHIOPIA. menced a little above the modern village of Khartoum, where the Bohr el Azrek, Blue or Dark River, unites with the Balir el Abiad, or White Nile. (Lat. 15 37' N., long. 33 E.) The desert of Bahivuda on the left bank of the Nile formed its western limit : its eastern frontier was the river Astaboras and the northern upland of Abyssinia the wprj^wot TTJJ 'Apagias of Diodorus (i. 33). To the N. Aethiopia was bounded by a province called Dodecaschoenus or Aethiopia Aegypti a debateable land subject some- times to the Thebaid and sometimes to the kings of Meroe. The high civilisation of Aethiopia, as at- tested by historians and confirmed by its monuments, was confined to the insular area of Meroe and to Aethiopia Aegypti, and is more particularly de- scribed under the head of MERGE. The connection between Egypt and Aethiopia was at all periods very intimate. The inhabitants of the Nile valley and of Aethiopia were indeed branches of the same Hamite stream, and differed only in degree of civilisation. Whether religion and the arts descended or ascended the Nile has long been a subject of discussion. From Herodotus (ii. 29) it would appear that the worship of Ammon and Osiris (Zeus and Dionysus) was imparted by Meroe to Egypt. The annual procession of the Holy Ship, with the shrine of the Ram-headed god, from Thebes to the Libyan side of the Nile, as depicted on the temple ofKarnak and on several Nubian monuments, probably commemorates the migration of Ammon- worship from Meroe to Upper Egypt. Diodorus also says (iii. 3) that the people above Meroe worship Isis, Pan, Heracles, and Zeus : and his assertion would be confirmed by monuments in Upper Nubia bearing the head of Isis, &c., could we be certain of the date of their erection. The Aethiopian monarchy was even more strictly sacerdotal than that of Egypt, at least the power of the priesthood was longer undis- puted. " In Aethiopia," says Diodorus (iii. 6), " the priests send a sentence of death to the king, when they think he has lived long enough. The order to die is a mandate of the gods." In the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 284 246) however an important revolution took place. Ergamenes, a monarch who had some tincture of Greek arts and philosophy, put all the priests to death (Diod. iii. 6. 3), and plundered their golden temple at Napata (Barkal ?). If He- rodotus (ii. 100) were not misinformed by the priests of Memphis, 18 Aethiopian kings were among the predecessors of Sesortasen. The monuments however do not record this earlier dynasty. Sesortasen is said by the same historian to have conquered Aethiopia (Herod, ii. 106); but his occupation must have been merely transient, since he also affirms that the country above Egypt had never been conquered (iii. 21). But in the latter part of the 8th century B. c. an Aethi- opian dynasty, the 25th of Egypt, reigned in Lower Egypt, and contained three kings Sabaco, Sebichus, and Taracus or Tirhakah. At this epoch the annals of Aethiopia become connected with universal history. Sabaco and his successors reigned at Napata, probably seated at that bend of the Nile where the rocky island of Mogreb divides its stream. The invasion of Egypt by the Aethiopian king was little more than a change of dynasty, as the royal families of the two kingdoms had previously been united by in- termarriages. Bocchoris, the last Egyptian monarch of the 24th dynasty, was put to a cruel death by Sabaco, yet Diodorus (i. 60) commends the latter as exemplarily pious and merciful. Herodotus (ii. 137) represents Sabaco as substituting for criminals coin- AKTIIIOHA. pulsoiy labour in the mines for the punishment of death. Diodorus also celebrates the mildness and justice of another Aethiopian king, whom he calls Actisanes, and rumours of such virtues may have procured for the Aethiopian race the epithet of " the blameless." (Horn. //. i. 423.) Sebichus, the So or Seva of the Scriptures, was the son and successor of Sabaco. He was an ally of lln-hea, king of Israel; but he was unable, or too tanlv in his movements, to prevent the capture of Samaria by Shalmaneser, kino; O f Assyria, in B. c. 7'2-2. One result of the captivity of Israel was an influx of Hebrew exiles into Egypt and Aetbiopia, and eventually the dissemination of the Mosaic re- ligion in the country north of Elephantine, Before Iliis catastrophe, the Psalmist and the Prophets /i, Ixxxvii. 4; Isaiah, xx. 5; Nakum, iii. 9; ant. 4) had celebrated the military power of Aethiopians, and the historical writings of the ,Ic\vs record their invasions of Palestine. Isaiah (xix. 18) predicts the return of Israel from the land of ( 'ush; and the story of Queen Candace's treasurer, in the Acts of the Apostles (ch. viii.), shows that the Hebrew Scriptures were current in the more civilised parts of that region. Sebichus was suc- ceeded by Tirhakah the Tarcus or Taracus of Manetho. The commentators on the Book of Kings (iii. 19) usually describe this monarch as an Ara- bian chieftain; but his name is recorded on the propylon of a temple at Medinet-Aboo, and at Gebel- cl-Birkel, or Barkal, in Nubia. He was, therefore, of Aethiopian lineage. Strabo (i. p. 61, xv. p. 687) ys, that Tirhakah rivalled Sesortasen, or Ra- meses III., in his conquests, which extended to the Pillars of Hercules, meaning, probably, the Phoe- nician settlements on the northern coast of Africa. From Hebrew records (2 Kings, xviii, xix. ; Isaiah, xxxvi, xxxvii.), we know that Tirhakah was on his march to relieve Judaea from the invasion of Sen- nacherib (B. c. 588) ; but his advance was rendered unnecessary by the pestilence which swept off the Assyrian army near Pelusium (Herod, ii. 141 ; Horapoll. Ilierogl. i. 50). Tirhakah, however, was sovereign only in the Thebaid : one, if not two, native Egyptian kings, reigned contemporaneously with him at Memphis and Sais. According to the inscription at Gebel-el-Birbel, Tirhakah reigned at least twenty years in Upper Egypt. Herodotus, in- deed, regards the 25th or Aethiopian dynasty in Egypt as comprised in the reign and person of Sa- baco alone, to whom he assigns a period of fifty years. But there were certainly three monarchs of this line, and a fourth, Ammeris, is mentioned in the list of Eusebius. The historian (ii. 139) as- cribes the retirement of the last Aethiopian monarch to a dream, which may perhaps be interpreted as a mandate from the hierarchy at Napata to forego his conquests below Philae. In the reign of Psammetichus (B. c. 630), the entire war-caste of Egypt migrated into Aethiopia. Herodotus (ii. 30) says that the deserters (Auto- moii) settled in a district as remote from the Aethio- pian metropolis (Napata) as that city was from Elephantine. But this statement would carry them below lat. 16, the extreme limit of Aethiopian civilisation. Diodoras (i. 67) describes the Auto- moli as settled in the most fertile region of Aethio- pia. North-west of Meroe', however, a tribe had established themselves, whom the geographers call Euonymitae, the Asmach of Herodotus (ii. 30; Strab. xvii. p. 786 ; Plin. vi. 30), and there is AKTHIOPIA. 59 reason to consider these, who from their name may have uiice composed the lift wing of the Egyptian army, the exiled war-caste. In that frontier po- sition they would have been available to theif adopted country as a permanent garrison against invasion from the north. The Persian dynasty was scarcely established in Egypt, when Cambyses undertook an expedition into Aethiopia. He prepared for it by sending certain Icthyophagi from Elephantine as envoys, or rather as spies, to the king of the Macrobians. (Herod, iii. 17 25.) But the invasion was so ill-planned, or encountered such physical obstacles in the desert, that the Persian army returned to Mempliia, enfeebled and disheartened. Of this in- road the maga/.ines of C'ambyses (ra/j.if'ta Ka^Sv- ffov, Ptol. iv. 7. 15"), probably the town of Cambysis (Plin. //. N. vi. 29), on the left bank of the Nile, near its great curve to the west, was the only per- manent record. The Persian occupation of the Nile- valley opened the country above Philae to Greek travellers. The philosopher Democritus, a little younger than Herodotus, wrote an account of the hieroglyphics of Meroe (Diog. Laert. ix. 49), and from this era we may probably date the establish- ment of Greek emporia upon the shore of the Red Sea. Under the Ptolemies, the arts, as well as the enterprise of the Greeks, entered Aethiopia, and led to the destruction of the sacerdotal government, and to the foundation or extension of the Hellenic colonies Dire- Berenices, Arsinoe, Adule, Ptolemais-Theron, on the coast, where, until the era of the Saracen invasion in the 7th century A. D., an active trade was carried on between Libya, Arabia, and Western India or Ceylon (Ophir? Taprobane). In the reign of Augustus, the Aethiopians, under their Queen Candace, advanced as far as the Roman garrisons at Parembole and Elephantine. They were repulsed by C. Petronius, the legatus of the prefect of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, who placed a Roman garrison in Premnis (Ibrim), and pursued the re- treating army to the neighbourhood of Napata. (Dion Cass. h'v. 5.) In a second campaign Pe- tronius compelled Candace to send overtures ot peace and submission to Augustus (B. c. 22 23) But the Roman tenure of Aethiopia above Egypt was always precarious ; and in Diocletian's reign (A. D. 284 305), the country south of Philae was ceded generally by that emperor to the Nubae. Under the Romans, indeed, if not earlier, the popu- lation of Aethiopia had become almost Arabian, and continued so after the establishment of Christian churches and sees, until the followers of Mahomet overran the entire region from the sources of the Astaboras to Alexandria, and confirmed the pre- dominance of their race. Such were the general divisions, tribes, and history of Aethiopia in the wider import of the term. In the interior, and again beginning from the south near the sources of the Astaboras we find the fol- lowing districts. Near the headland Elephas were the Mosyli (M^Aot), the Molibae (MoAfftu), and Soboridae (2ogopi'8a<) (Ptol. iv. 7. 28). Next, the Regio Axiomitarum [AXUME], immediately to the north of which was a province called Tenesis (Tyvt- v, Strab. I. c.; 6pos KoAogwi/, Ptol. iv. 8). Above these were the Memnones (Mf/xi/o^e??), a name celebrated by the post-Homeric poets of the Trojan war, and who are supposed by some to have been a colony from Western India (Philological Museum, vol. ii. p. 146); and above these, north of the Blemmyes and Megabari, are the Adiabarae, who skirted to the east the province of Dodecaschoenus or Aethiopia above, Egypt. But of all these tribes we know the names only, and even these very imperfectly. Modern travellers can only conjecturally connect them with t\\?Bedjas, Bischdries, Shangallas, and other Nubian or Arabian races; and neither Greeks nor Romans surveyed the neighbourhood of their colonies beyond the high roads which led to their principal havens on the Red Sea. The western portion of Aethiopia, owing to its generally arid character, was much more scantily peopled, and the tribes that shifted over rather than occupied its scanty pastures were mostly of Libyan origin, a mixed Negro and Barabra race. Parallel with the Astapus and the Nile after their confluence, stretched a limestone range of hills, denominated by Ptolemy the Aethiopian mountains (TO. Aidioiriita upri, iv. 8). They separated Aethiopia from the Garamantes. West of the elbow land which lay between Meroe and Napata was a district called Tergedum. North of Tergedum the Nubae came down to the Nile-bank between the towns of Primis Parva and Phturi ; and northward of these were the above-mentioned Euonymitae, who extended to Pselcis in lat. 23. In the region Dodecaschoenus or Aethiopia above Egypt were the following towns: HIERA SYCAMINUS ('If pa Su/ca/iti'os: Ptol.; Plin. vi. 29. s. 32; Itin. Anton, p. 162: 'S.UKO.JJLIVOV, Philostrat. Apoll. Tyan. iv. 2). the southernmost town of the district ( Wady Maharrakah, Burckhardt's Travels,}*. 100) ; CORTE (Kopria TrpcoT-ri, Agartharcides, p. 22 ; It. Anton. p. 162), Korti, four miles north of Hiera Sycaminos; and on the right bank of the Nile TACHOMPSO (Taxa|), also on the north- eastern frontier, was a south-westerly continuation of Oeta, and is described by Strabo as the greatest mountain in Aetolia. There was a pass through it leading to Thermopylae, which the consul Acilius Glabrio crossed with great difficulty and the loss of many beasts of burthen in his passage, when he marched from Thermopylae to Naupactus in B. c. 191. Leake remarks that the route of Glabrio Mas probably by the vale of the Vistritza into that of the Kokkino, over the ridges which connect Velukhi with Vardhusi, but very near the latter mountain, which is thus identified with Corax. Corax is de- scribed on that occasion by Livy as a very high mountain, lying between Callipolis and Nanpactus. (Strab. x. p. 450; Liv. xxxvi. 30; Steph. B. s.v.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 624.) 4. TA- PIIIASSUS (Tatytaffaos : Kaki-skahi), a southerly continuation of Corax, extended down to the Co- rinthian gulf, where it terminated in a lefty moun- tain near the town of Macynia. In this mountain Nessus and the other Centaurs were said to have been buried, and from their corpses arose tlie stinking waters which flowed into the sea, and from which the western Locrians are said to have derived the name of Ozolae, or the Stinking. Modern travellers have found at the base of Mt. Taphiassus a number of springs of fetid water. Taphiassus derives its modern name of Kakv-skala, or " Bad-ladder," iron* the dangerous road, which runs along the face of av precipitous cliff overhanging the sea, half way up the mountain. (Stra-b. pp. 427, 451, 460; Antig. Caryst. 129; Phn. IT. 2; Leake, voL L p. Ill; Mure, Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 135; Cell, Itinen p. 292.) 5. CHALCIS or CHALCEIA (XaA/cts f) XaA/a'a : Farawowa), an offshoot of Taj)hiassus r running down to the Corinthian gulf, between the mouth of the Evenus and Taphiassus. At its foob was a town of the same name. Taphiassus and,' Chalcis are the ancient names of the two great mountains running close down to the sea-coast, a> little west of the promontory Antirrhium, and sepa- rated from each other by some low ground. Each of these mountains rises from the sea in one dark gloomy mass. (Strab. pp. 451, 460; Horn. //. ii. 640; Leake, I c.; Mure, vol. i. p. 171.) 6. ARA- CYNTHUS ('A.pdicvv6os : Zygos), a range of moun- tains running in a south-easterly direction from the Achelous to the Evenus, and separating the lower plain of Aetolia near the sea from the upper plain. above the Likes Hyria and Trichonis. (Strab. x. p. 450.) [ARACYNTHUS.] 7. PANAETOUUM (Fieraa), a mountain NE. of Thermum, in which city the Aetolians held the meetings of their league. (Plin. iv. 2; Pol. v. 8; Leake, vol. i. p. 131.) 8. MYENUS (rb opos Mvijvov, Plut, de Fhiviis, p. 44), between the rivers Evenus and Hylaethus. 9. MACYXIUM, mentioned only by Pliny (/. c.), must, from its name, have been near the town of Macynia on the coast, and consequently a part of Mt. Taphiassus. 10. CURIUM (Kovpiov), a moun- tain between Pleuron and lake Trichonis, from which 64 AETOLIA. the Curetes were said to have derived their name. It is a branch of Aracynthus. (Strab. x. p. 451.) The two chief rivers of Aetolia were the Achelous and the Evenus, which flowed in the lower part of their course nearly parallel to one another. [ ACHE- LOUS : EVENUS.] There were no other rivers in the country worthy of mention, with the exception of the Campylus and Cyathus, both of which were tribu- taries of the Achelous. [ACHELOUS.] There were several lakes in the two great plains of Aetolia. The upper plain, N. of Mt. Aracynthus,. contained two large lakes, which communicated with each other. The eastern and the larger of the two was called Trichonis (Tpixowis, Pol. v. 7, xi. 4 : Lake ofApokuro), the western was named Hyria (Lake of Zygos) ; and from the latter issued the river Cyathus, which flowed into the Achelous near the town of Conope, afterwards Arsinoe (Ath. x. p. 424). This lake, named Hyrie by Ovid {Met. vii. 371, seq.) is called Hydra ("T5pa) in the common text of Strabo, from whom we learn that it was afterwards called Lysimachia (Auo-^axto) from a town of that name upon its southern shore. (Strab. p. 460.) Its proper name appears to have been Hyria, which might easily be changed into Hydra. (Muller, Dorians, vol. ii. p. 481.) This lake is also named Conope by Anto- ninus Liberalis {Met. 12). The mountain Aracynthus runs down towards the shores of both lakes, and near the lake Hyrie there is a ravine, which Ovid {I c.) calls the " Cycneia Tempe," because Cycnus was said to have been here changed into a swan by Apollo. The principal sources which form both the lakes are at the foot of the steep mountain overhanging the eastern, or lake Trichonis ; a current flows from E. to W. through the two lakes; and the river of Cyathus is nothing more than a continuation of the same stream (Leake, vol. i. p. 154). In the lower plain of Aetolia there were several smaller lakes or lagoons. Of these Strabo (pp. 459, 460) mentions three. 1. Cynia (Kwi'o), which was 60 stadia long and 20 broad, and communicated with the sea. 2. Uria {Ovpia), which was much smaller than the preceding and half a stadium from the sea. 3. A large lake near Calydon, belonging to the Romans of Patrae: this lake, according to Strabo, abounded in fish (etfo^os), and the gastronomic poet Archestratus said that it was celebrated for the labrax (Aagpa|), a ravenous kind of fish. (Ath. vii. p. 311, a.) There is some difficulty in identifying these lakes, as the coast has undergone numerous changes; but Leake supposes that the lagoon of Anatoliko was Cynia, that of Mesolonghi^na,, and that ofJBokhori the lake of Calydon. The last of these lakes is perhaps the same as the lake Onthis {'OvOis}, which Nicander (ap. Schol. ad Nicand. Ther. 214) speaks of in connection with Naupactus. (Leake, vol. iii. p. 573, &c.) In the two great plains of Aetolia excellent corn was grown, and the slopes of the mountains produced good wine and oil. These plains also afforded abun- dance of pasture for horses ; and the Aetolian horses were reckoned only second to those of Thessaly. In the mountains there were many wild beasts, among which we find mention of boars and even of lions, for Herodotus gives the Thracian Nestus and the Achelous as the limits within which lions were found in Europe. (Herod, v. 126.) The original inhabitants of Aetolia are said to have been Curetes, who according to some accounts had come from Euboea. (Strab. x. p. 465.) They inhabited the plains between the Achelous and the AETOLIA. I Evenus, and the country received in consequence the name of Curetis. Besides them we also find mention of the Leleges and the Hyantes, the latter of whom had been driven out of Boeotia. (Strab. pp. 322, 464.) These three peoples probably belonged to the great Pelasgic race, and were at all events not Hel- lenes. The first great Hellenic settlement in the country is said to have been that of the Epeans, led by Aetolus, the son of Endymion, who crossed over from Elis in Peloponnesus, subdued the Curetes, and gave his name to the country and the people, six generations before the Trojan war. Aetolus founded the town of Calydon, which he called after his son, and which became the capital of his dominions. The Curetes continued to reside at their ancient capital Pleuron at the foot of Mt. Curium, and for a long time carried on war with the inhabitants of Calydon. Subsequently the Curetes were driven out of Pleuron, and are said to have crossed over into Acamania. At the time of the Trojan war Pleuron as well as Calydon were governed by the Aetolian chief Thoas. (Paus. v. 1. 8; Horn. II. ix. 529, seq.; Strab. p. 463.) Since Pleuron appears in the later period of the heroic age as an Aetolian city, it is represented as such from the beginning in some legends. Hence Pleuron, like Calydon, is said to have derived its name from a son of Aetolus (Apollod. i. 7. 7) ; and at the very time that some legends represent it as the capital of the Curetes, and engaged in war with Oeneus, king of Calydon, others relate that it was governed by his own brother Thestius. Aetolia was celebrated in the heroic age of Greece on account of the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and the exploits of Tydeus, Meleager and the other heroes of Calydon and Pleuron. The Aetolians also took part in the Trojan war under the command of Thoas; they camt; in 40 ships from Pleuron, Calydon, Olenus, Pylcne and Chalcis (Horn. II. ii. 638). Sixty years after the Trojan war some Aeolians, who had been driven out of Thessaly along with the Boeotians, migrated into Aetolia, and settled in the country around Pleuron and Calydon, which was hence called Aeolis after them. (Strab. p. 464; Thuc. iii. 102.) Ephorus (ap. Strab. p. 465) however places this migration ot the Aeolians much earlier, for he relates " that the Aeolians once invaded the district of Pleuron, which was inhabited by the Curetes and called Curetis, and expelled this people." Twenty years afterwards occurred the great Dorian invasion of Peloponnesus under the command of the descendants of Heracles. The Aetolian chief Oxylus took part in this invasion, and conducted the Dorians across the Corinthian gulf. In return for his services he received Elis upon the conquest of Peloponnesus. From this time till the commencement of the Peloponnesian war we know nothing of the history of the Aetolians. Notwithstanding their fame in the heroic age, they appear at the time of the Peloponnesian war as one of the most uncivilized of the Grecian tribes ; and Thucydides (i. 5) mentions them, together with their neighbours the Ozolian Locrians and Acarnanians, as retaining all the habits of a rude and barbarous age. At this period there were three main divisions of the Aetolians, the Apodoti,. Ophionenses, and Eurytanes. The last, who were the most numerous of the three, spoke a language which was unintelligible, and were in the habit of eating raw meat. (Thuc. iii. 102.) Thucydides, however, does not call them EdpSapot ; and notwithstanding their low culture and uncivilized habits, the Aetolians ranked as Hellenes, partly, *"& 8j AETOLIA. appears, on account of their legendary renown, and partly on account of their acknowledged con- nection with the Eleans in Peloponnesus. Kadi of these three divisions was subdivided into several village tribes. Their villages were unfortified, and most of the inhabitants lived by plunder. Their tribes appear to have been independent of each other, and it was only in circumstances of common danger that they aeted in concert. The inhabitants of the inland mountains were brave, active, and invin- cible. They were unrivalled in the use of the javelin, for which they are celebrated by Euripides. (Plioeniss. 139, 140; comp. Time. iii. 97.) The Apodoti, Ophionenses, and Eurytanes, in- habited only the central districts of Aetolia, and did not occupy any part of the plain between the Kvenns and the Achelous, which was the abode of the more civilized part of the nation, who bore no other name than that of Aetolians. The Apodoti ('A7n$8a>T(, Thuc. iii. 94; 'AirJSoroi, Pol. xvii. 5) inhabited the mountains above Naupactus, on the borders of Locris. They are said by Polybius not to have been Hellenes. (Comp. Liv. xxxii. 34.) North of these dwelt the Ophionenses or Ophienses ('Ctyioi/ers, Thuc. /. c.; 'O$ie7s, Strab. pp.451, 465), and to them belonged the smaller tribes of the Bomi- enses (Boy-uf/s, Thuc. iii. 96; Strab. p. 451; Sreph. Byz. .v.Bo>/iof)and Callienses(KaAAi7?y,Thuc. /.c.), both of which inhabited the ridge of Oeta running down towards the Malic gulf: the former are placed by Strabo (L c.) at the sources of the Evenus, and the position of the latter is fixed by that of their capital town Gallium. [GALLIUM.] The Eury- tanes (Evpvravfs, Thuc. iii. 94, et alii) dwelt north of the Ophionenses, as far, apparently, as Mt. Tymphrestus, at the foot of which was the town Ocehalia, which Strabo describes as a place belong- ing to this people. They are said to have possessed oracle of Odysseus. (Strab. pp. 448, 451, 465; ol. ad Lycophr. 799.) The Agraei, who inhabited the north-west corner of Aetolia, bordering upon Ambracia, were not a division of the Aetolian nation, but a separate people, governed at the tune of the Peloponnesian war by a king of their own, and only united to Aetolia at a later period. The Aperanti, who lived in the same district, appear to have been a subdivision of the A.irraei. [AGRAEI; APERANTI.] Pliny (iv. 3) men- tions various other peoples as belonging to Aetolia, such as the Athamanes, Tymphaei, Dolopes, &c.; but this statement is only true of the later period of the Aetolian League, when the Aetolians had ex- tended their dominion over most of the neighbouring tribes of Epirus and Thessaly. At the commencement of the Peloponnesian war the Aetolians had formed no alliance either with Sparta or Athens, and consequently are not men- tioned by Thucydides (ii. 9) in his enumeration of the allied forces of the two nations. It was the unprovoked invasion of their country by the Athe- nians in the sixth year of the war (B. c. 455), which led them to espouse the Lacedaemonian side. In this year the Messenians, who had been settled at Xaupactus by the Athenians, and who had suf- fered greatly from the inroads of the Aetolians, persuaded the Athenian general, Demosthenes, to march into the interior of Aetolia, with the hope of conquering the three great tribes of the Apodoti, Ophionenses, and Eurytanes, since if they were subdued the Athenians would become masters of the whole country between the Ambracian gulf and AETOLIA. 65 Parnassus. Having collected a considerable force, Demosthenes set out from Naupactus; but the ex- pedition proved a complete failure. After advancing a few miles into the interior, he was attacked at Ae^itium by the whole force of the Aetolians, who had occupied the adjacent hills. The rugged nature of the ground prevented the Athenian hoplites from coming to close quarters with their active foe ; De- mosthenes had with him only a small number of light-armed troops; and in the end the Athenians were completely defeated, and fled in disorder to the, coast. Shortly afterwards the Aetolians joined the Peloponnesians under Eurylochus in making an attack upon Naupactus, which Demosthenes stved with difficulty, by the help of the Acarnanians. (Thuc. iii. 94, &c.) The Aetolians took no further part in the Peloponnesian war; for those of the na- tion who fought under the Athenians in Sicily were only mercenaries. (Thuc. vii. 57.) From this time till that of the Macedonian supremacy, we find scarcely any mention of the Aetolians. They ap- pear to have been frequently engaged in hostilities with their neighbours and ancient enemies, the Acarnanians. [ACARNANIA.] After the death of Alexander the Great (B. c. 323) the Aetolians joined the confederate Greeks in what is usually called the Lamian war. This war was brought to a close by the defeat of the confe- derates at Crannon (B.C. 322); whereupon Anti- pater and Craterus, having first made peace with Athens, invaded Aetolia with a large army. The Aetolians, however, instead of yielding to the in- vaders, abandoned their villages in the plains and retired to their impregnable mountains, where they remained in safety, till the Macedonian generals were obliged to evacuate their territory in order to march against Perdiccas. (Diod. xviii. 24, 25.) In the wars which followed between the differeat usurpers of the Macedonian throne, the alliance of the Aetolians was eagerly courted by the contending armies ; and their brave and warlike population enabled them to exercise great influence upon the politics of Greece. The prominent part they took in the expulsion of the Gauls from Greece (B. c. 279) still further increased their reputation. In the army which the Greeks assembled at Thermo- pylae to oppose the Gauls, the contingent of the Aetolians was by far the largest, and they here dis- tinguished themselves by then: bravery in repulsing the attacks of the enemy; but they earned their chief glory by destroying the greater part of a body of 40,000 Gauls, who had invaded their country, and had taken the town of Gallium, and committed the most horrible atrocities on the inhabitants. The Aetolians also assisted in the defence of Delphi when it was attacked by the Gauls, and hi the pursuit of the enemy in their retreat. (Paus. x. 20 23.) To commemorate the vengeance they had inflicted upon the Gauls for the destruction of Gallium, th Aetolians dedicated at Delphi a trophy and a statue of an armed heroine, representing Aetolia. They also dedicated in the same temple the statues of the generals under whom they had fought in this war. (Kins. x. 18. 7, x. 15. 2.) From this time the Aetolians appear as one of the three great powers in Greece, the other two being the Macedonians and Achaeans. Like the At harans, the Aetolians were united in a confederacy or league. At what time this league was first formed is uncertain. It is inferred that the Aeto- lians must have been united into some form of coo- 66 AETOLIA. federacy at least as early as the time of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, from an inscription on the statue of Aetolus at Thermum, quoted by Ephorus (Strab. p. 463 : Alru\bv r6i>8' a.vedt}Kav Alru\ol (T; Fabretti, Inscr. p. 637.) [E. H. B.] A'FRICA ('Ap Ptol. iii. 4. 2 ; Itin. Ant. p. 92 ; Tab. Peut.) Its situation has been much disputed, on account of the great discrepancy between the authorities just cited. Strabo places it 30 Roman miles from Tyndaris, and the same distance from Alaesa. The Itinerary gives 28 M. P. from Tyndaris and 20 from Calacte: while the Tabula (of which the numbers seem to be more trustworthy for this part of Sicily than those of the Itinerary) gives 29 from Tyndaris, and only 12 from Calacte. If this last measurement be supposed correct it would exactly coincide with the distance from Caronia (Calacte) to a place near the sea- coast called Acque Dolci below S. Filadelfo (called on recent maps S. Fratdlo) and about 2 miles W. of Sta Agata, where Fazello describes ruins of con- siderable magnitude as extant in his day : but which he, in common with Cluverius, regarded as the re- my % thr. AGATHYRSL mains of Aluntium. The latter city may, however be placed with much more probability at S. Mara [ALUNTIUM] : and the ruins near S. Fratello would thus be those of Agathyrna, there being no other city of any magnitude that we know of in this part o] Sicilv. T\vo objections, however, remain: 1. thai the distance from this site to Tyndaris is greater than that given by any of the authorities, being certainly not less than 36 miles : 2. that both Pliny and Pto- lemy, from the order of their enumeration, appear to \;athyrna between Aluntium and Tyndaris and therefore if the former city be correctly fixed at >'. Mnrco, Agathyrna must be looked for to the E of t hat town. Fazello accordingly placed it near Capo ando, but admits that there were scarcely any tip's viable there. The question is one hardly ptible of a satisfactory conclusion, as it is im- on any view to reconcile the data of all our authorities, but the arguments in favour of the Acque Jtnlci seem on the whole to predominate. Unfortu nately the ruins there have not been examined by auv recent traveller, and have very probably disap- peared. Captain Smyth, however, speaks of the re- mains of a fine Roman bridge as visible in the Finmara di Rosa Marina between this place and S. Marco. (Fazell. ix. 4, p. 384, 5. p. 391 ; Cluver. Sicil. p. 295; Smyth's Sicily, p. 97.) [E. H. B.] AGATHYRSI ('AydOvpaoi, 'Ayaevpnoi), a people of Sarmatia Europaea, very frequently men- tioned by the ancient writers, but in different posi- tions. Their name was known to the Greeks very early, if the Peisander, from whom Suidas (s. v.) and Stephanos Byzantinus (s.v.) quote an absurd invthical etymology of the name (anb TU.V Svpvuv rov AjJi/i/crou) be the poet Peisander of Rhodes, B. c. 645; but he is much more probably the younger Peisander of Larauda, A.D. 222. Another mvth is repeated by Herodotus, who heard it from Greeks on the Euxine; that Hercules, on his urn from his adventure against Geryon, passed hrouirh the region of Hylaea, and there met the Echidna, who bore him three sons, Agathyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes; of whom the last alone was able to bend a bow and to wear a belt, which Her- cules had left behind, in the same manner as Her- cules himself had used them ; and, accordingly, in obedience to their father's command, the Echidna drove the two elder out of the land, and gave it to Scythes (Herod, iv. 7 10 : comp. tzetz. Chil. viii. 222, 759). Herodotus himself, also, regards the Agathyrsi as not a Scythian people, but as closely related to the Scythians. He places them about the upper course of the river Maris (Maroscfi), that is, in the SE. part of Dacia, or the modern Tran- fi>//rinn'a (iv. 4: the Maris, however, does not fall directly, as he states, into the Ister, Danube, but into that great tributary of the Danube, the Theiss}. They were the first of the peoples bordering on Scythia, to one going inland from the Ister; and next to them the Neuri (iv. 100). Being thus se- parated by the E. Carpathian mountains from Scythia, they were able to refuse the Scythians, flying before Dareius, an entrance into their country (Herod, iv. 125). How far N. they extended cannot be determined from Herodotus, for he assigns an erroneous course to the Ister, N. of which he con- siders the land to be quite desert. [SCYTHIA.] The later writers, for the most part, place the Agathyrsi further to the N., as is the case with nearly all the Scythian tribes; some place them on the Palus Mae- otis and some inland; and they are generally spoken AGISYMBA. *- o / O of in close connection with the Sarmatians and tl.o Geloni, and are regarded as a Scythian tribe (Ephor. op. Scymn. Fr. v. 123, or 823, ed. Meineke ; Mela ii. 1; Plin. iv. 26 ; Ptol. iii. 5; Dion. Perieg. 310; Avien. Descr. Orb. 447; Steph. B. s. v.; Suid. .y the modern town of Sens, on the river Yonne. Some critics have supposed that Provins represents Agendicum. Under the Roman empire, in the later division of Gallia, Agendicum was the chief town of ,ugdunensis Quarta, and it was the centre of several Joman roads. In the walls of the city there are some stones with Roman inscriptions and sculptures. The name Agredicum in the Antonine Itinerary may be a corruption of Agendicum. [G. L.] AGINNUM or AGENNUM (Agen), was the chief town of the Nitiobriges, a tribe situated be- tween the Garumna and the Ligeris in Caesar's :ime (B. G. vii. 7, 75). Aginnum was on the road rom Burdigala to Argentomagus (It. Antonin.). it is the origin of the modern town of A gen, on the river Garonne, hi the department of Lot and Garonne, and contains some Roman remains. Aginnum is mentioned by Ausonius (Ep. xxiv. 79) ; and it was ,he birthplace of Sulpicius Severus. [G. L.] AGISYMBA ('AyiffvuGa), the general name 74 AGORA. under which Ptolemy includes the whole interior of Africa S. of the Equator ; which he regards as be- longing to Aethiopia (i. 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, iv. 8, vii. 5). [P.S.] A'GORA ('Ayopd), a town situated about the middle of the narrow neck of the Thracian Cherso- nesus, and not far from Cardia. Xerxes, when in- vading Greece, passed through it. (Herod, vii. 58 ; Scylax, p. 28 ; Steph. B. s. w.) [L. S.] AGRA ("A7pa 'Apagias, Ptol. vi. 7. 5 ; Steph. B. s. vv. 'lddpLTnra,"Eypa), a small district of Arabia Felix, situated at the foot of Mount Hippus, on the eastern coast of the Red Sea, in lat. 29 1 N. (Akra). lathrippa or Lathrippa seems to have been its prin- cipal town. [W. B. D.] AGRAE. [ATTICA.] AGRAEI ('Aypcuoi, Thuc. iii. 106; Strab. p. 449 : 'Aypaets, Pol. xvii. 5 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.\ a people hi the NW. of Aetolia, bounded on the W. by Acarnania, from which it was separated by Mount Thyamus (Spartornmi); on the NW. by the territory of Argos Amphilochicum ; and on the N. by Dolopia. Their territory was called Agrais, or Agraea ('Aypais, -iSos, Thuc. iii. Ill ; 'Aypaia, Strab. p. 338), and the river Achelous flowed through the centre of it. The Agraei were a non- Hellenic people, and at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war were governed by a native king, called Salynthius, who is mentioned as an ally of the Ambraciots, when the latter were defeated by the Acarnanians and Demosthenes hi B. c. 426. Two years afterwards (424) Demosthenes marched against Salynthius and the Agraei, and compelled them to join the Athenian alliance. Subsequently they be- came subject to the Aetolians, and are called an Aetolian people by Strabo. (Thuc. ii. 102, iii. 106, 114, iv. 77; Strab. p. 449; Pol. xvii. 5; Liv. xxxii. 34.) This people is mentioned by Cicero (in Pison. 37), under the name of Agrinae, which is perhaps a corrupt form. Strabo (p. 338) mentions a village called Ephyra in their country ; and Agri- nium would also appear from its name to have been one of their towns. [EPHYRA; AGRINIUM.] The Aperanti were perhaps a tribe of the Agraei. [APERANTIA.] The Agraei were a different people from the Agrianes, who lived on the borders of Macedonia. [AGRIANES.] AGRAEI ('AypaloL, Ptol. v. 19. 2 ; Eratosth. ap. Strab. p. 767), a tribe of Arabs situated near the main road which led from the head of the Red Sea to the Euphrates. They bordered on the Naba- thaean Arabs, if they were not indeed a portion of that race. According to Hieronymus (Quaest. in Gen. 25), the Agraei inhabited the district which the Hebrews designated as Midian. Pliny (v. 11. s. 12) places the Agraei much further westward hi the vicinity of the Laenitae and the eastern shore of the Red Sea. [W.B.D.] AGRAULE or AGRYLE. [ATTICA.] AGRI DECUMA'TES or DECUMA'NI (from decuma, tithe), tithe lands, a name given by the Romans to the country E. of the Rhine and N. of the Danube, which they took possession of on the withdrawal of the Germans to the E., and which they gave to the immigrating Gauls and subject Germans, and subsequently to their own veterans, on the pay- meat of a tenth of the produce. Towards the end of the first or the beginning of the second century after Christ, the country became part of the adjoining Roman province of Rhaetia, and was thus incorporated with the empire. (Tacit. Germ. 29.) Its boundary AGRIGENTUM, towards the free part of Germany was protected partly by a wall (from Ratisbon to Lorch), and partly by a mound (from Lorch to the Rhine, in the neighbour- hood of Cologne) and Roman garrisons. The pro- tection of those districts against the ever renewed attacks of the Germans required a considerable mili- tary force, and this gave rise to a number of towns and military roads, of which many traces still exist. But still the Romans were unable to maintain them- selves, and the part which was lost first seems to have been the country about the river Maine and Mount Taunus. The southern portion was probably lost soon after the death of the emperor Probus (A.D 283), when the Alemanni took possession of it. The latest of the Roman inscriptions found in that country belongs to the reign of Gallienus (A. D. 260 268). (Comp. Leichtlen, Schwaben unter den Edmern, Freiburg, 1825, 8vo.) The towns in the Decumates Agri were Ambiatinus vicus, ALISUM, Divitia, Gesonia, Victoria, Biberna, Aquae Mattiacae, Munimentum Trajani, Artaunum, Triburium, Bra- godurum or Bragodunum, Budoris, Carithni, and others. Comp. RHAETIA. [L. S.] AGRIA'NES ('AypLdvrjs : Ergina), a small river in Thrace, and one of the tributaries of the Hebrus. (Herod, iv. 89.) It flows from Mount Hieron in a NW. direction, till it joins the Hebrus. Some have supposed it to be the same as the Erigon, which, however, is impossible, the latter being a tributary of the Axius. [L. S.] AGRIA'NES ('A7pmi/es), a Paeonian people, dwelling near the sources of the Strymon. They formed excellent light-armed troops, and are fre- quently mentioned in the campaigns of Alexander the Great. (Strab. p. 331; Herod, v. 16; Thuc.ii. 96; Arrian, Anab. i. 1. 11, i. 5. 1, et alib.) AGRIGENTUM ('A K pdyas*: Eth. and Adj. 'AKpayavr'it'os, Agrigentinus : Girgenti), one of the most powerful and celebrated of the Greek cities in Sicily, was situated on the SW. coast of the island, about midway between Selinus and Gela. It stood on a hill between two and three miles from the sea, the foot of which was washed on the E. and S. by a river named the ACRAGAS, from whence the city itself derived its appellation, on the W. and SW. by another stream named the HYPSAS, which unites its waters with those of the Acragas just below the city, and about a mile from its mouth. The former is now called the Flume di S. JBiagio, the latter the Drago, while their united stream is commonly known as the Fiume di Girgenti (Polyb. ix. 27 ; Siefert, Akragas u. sein Gebiet, p. 20 22). We learn from Thucydides that Agrigentum was founded by a colony from Gela, 108 years after the establishment of the parent city, or B. c. 582. The leaders of the colony were Aristonous and Pystilus, and it received the Dorian institutions of the mother country, including the sacred rites and observances which had been derived by Gela itself from Rhodes. On this account it is sometimes called a Rhodian colony. (Thuc. vi. 4; Scymn. Ch. 292; Strab. vi. p. 272, where Kramer justly reads FeAoWfor 'Iwvw, Polyb. ix. 27. Concerning the date of its founda- tion see Schol. ad Pind. 01. ii. 66 ; and Clinton, F. H. vol. ii. p. 265.) We have very little information concerning its early history, but it appears to have very rapidly risen to great prosperity and power: * The form ACRAGAS or AGRAGAS hi Latin is found only in the Roman poets. (Virg. Aen. iii 703; Sil. Ital. xiv. 210.) det % AGRIGENTUM. though it preserved its liberty for but a very short period before it fell under the yoke of Phalaris (about 570 ii. c.). The history of that despot is involved in so much uncertainty that it is difficult to know what part of it can be depended on as really his- torical. [Diet, of Biogr. art. PHALARIS, vol. iii.] But it seems certain that he raised Agrigentum to be one of the most powerful cities in Sicily, and ex- tended his dominion by force of arms over a con- siderable part of the island. But the cruel and tyrannical character of his internal government at Icnirth provoked a general insurrection, in which 1'halaris himself perished, and the Agrigentines re- 1 their liberty. (Diod. Exc. Vat. p. 25; Cic. (if. ii. 7; Heraclides, Polit. 37.) From this riod till the accession of Theron, an interval of about 60 y ars, we have no information concerning Ml urn, except a casual notice that it was suc- ee.-Mvely governed by Alcamenes and Alcandrus (but whether as despots or chief magistrates does not appear), and that it rose to great wealth and pros- jerhy under their rule. (Heraclid. /. c.) The precise date whc-u Theron attained to the sovereignty <>t' hi> native city, as well as the steps by which he rose to power, are unknown to us : but he appears to have become despot of Agrigentum as early as B. c. 488. (Diod. xi. 53.) By his alliance with Gelon of Syracuse, and still more by the expulsion of Terillus i limcra, and the annexation of that city to his dominions, Theron extended as well as confirmed his power, and the great Carthaginian invasion in B. c. 480, which for a time threatened destruction to all the Greek cities in Sicily, ultimately became a source of increased prosperity to Agrigentum. For after the great victory of Gelon and Theron at Hi- mera, a vast number of Carthaginian prisoners fell into the hands of the Agrigentines, and were em- ployed by them partly in the cultivation of their extensive and fertile territory, partly in the con- struction of public works in the city itself, the magnificence of which was long afterwards a subject of admiration. (Diod. xi. 25.) Nor does the go- vernment of Theron appear to have been oppressive, and he continued in the undisturbed possession of the sovereign power till his death, B. c. 472. His son Thrasydaeus on the contrary quickly alienated his subjects by his violent and arbitrary conduct, and was expelled from Agrigentum within a year after his father's death. (Id. xi. 53. For further details concerning the history of Agrigentum during period, see the articles THEKON and THRASY- Krs in the Diet, of Biogr. vol. iii.) The Agrigentines now established a democratic form of government, which they retained without interruption for the space of above 60 years, until the Carthaginian invasion in B.C. 406 a period which may be regarded as the most prosperous and flourishing in the history of Agrigentum, as well as of many others of the Sicilian cities. The great public works which were commenced or completed during this interval were the wonder of succeeding ages; the city itself was adorned with buildings both public and private, inferior to none in Greece, and the wealth and magnificence of its inhabitants became almost proverbial. Their own citizen Em- pedocles is said to have remarked that they built their houses as if they were to live for ever, but gave themselves up to luxury as if they were to die on the morrow. (Diog. Lncrt. viii. 2. 63.) The number of citizens of Agrigentum at this time is stated by Diodorus at 20,000: but he esti- AGRIGENTUM. 75 mates the whole population (including probably slaves as well as strangers) at not less than 200,000 (Diod. xiii. 84 and 90), a statement by no means improbable, while that of Diogenes Laertius (/. c.), who makes the population of the city alone amount to 800,000, is certainly a gross exaggeration. This period was however by no means one of un- broken peace. Agrigentum could not avoid parti- cipating though in a less degree than many other cities in the troubles consequent on the expulsion of the Gelonian dynasty from Syracuse, and the revolutions that followed in different parts of Sicily. Shortly afterwards we find it engaged in hostilities with the Sicel chief Ducetius, and the conduct of the Syracusans towards that chieftain led to a war between them and the Agrigentines, which ended in a great defeat of the latter at the river Himera, B. c. 446. (Diod. xi. 76, 91,xii. 8.) We find also obscure notices of internal dissensions, which were allayed by the wisdom and moderation of Empedocles. (Diog. Laert. viii. 2. 64 67.) On occasion of the great Athenian expedition to Sicily in B. c. 415, Agrigentum maintained a strict neutrality, and not only declined sending auxiliaries to either party but refused to allow a passage through their territory to those of other cities. And even when the tide of fortune had turned decidedly against the Athenians, all the efforts of the Syracusan partisans within the walls of Agrigentum failed in inducing their fellow- citizens to declare for the victorious party. (Time, vii. 32, 33, 46, 50, 58.) A more formidable danger was at hand. The Carthaginians, whose intervention was invoked by the Segestans, were contented in their first expedition (B. c. 409) with the capture of Selinus and Himera: but when the second was sent in B. c. 406 it was Agrigentum that was destined to bear the first brunt of the attack. The luxurious habits of the Agri- gentines had probably rendered them little fit for warfare, but they were supported by a body of mer- cenaries under the command of a Lacedaemonian named Dexippus, who occupied the citadel, and the natural strength of the city in great measure defied the efforts of the assailants. But notwithstanding these advantages and the efficient aid rendered them by a Syracusan army under Daphnaeus, they were reduced to such distress by famine that after a siege of eight months they found it impossible to hold out longer, and to avoid surrendering to the enemy, abandoned their city, and migrated to Gela. The sick and helpless inhabitants were massacred, and the city itself with all its wealth and magnificence plundered by the Carthaginians, who occupied it as their quarters during the winter, but completed its de- struction when they quitted it in the spring, B.C. 405. (Diod. xiii. 8091, 108; Xen. Hell. i. 5. 21.) Agrigentum never recovered from this fatal blow, though by the terms of the peace concluded with Dionysius by the Carthaginians, the fugitive inha- bitants were permitted to return, and to occupy the ruined city, subject however to the Carthaginian rule, and on condition of not restoring the fortifica- tions, a permission of which many appear to have availed themselves. (Diod. xiii. 114.) A few years later they were even able to shake off the yoke of Carthage and attach themselves to the cause of Dionysius, and the peace of B. c. 383, which fixed the river Halycus as the boundary of the Cartha- ginian dominions, must have left them in the enjoy, ment of their liberty; but though we find them re- peatedly mentioned during the wars of Dionysus 76 AGRIGENTUM. and his successors, it is evident that the city was far from having recovered its previous importance, and continued to play but a subordinate part. (Diod. xiv. 46, 88, xv. 17, xvi. 9 ; Pint. Dion, 25, 26, 49.) In the general settlement of the affairs of Sicily by Timoleon, after his great victory over the Cartha- ginians on the Crimissus, B. c. 340, he found Agrigentum in a state of such depression that he resolved to recolonise it with citizens from Velia in Italy (Plut. Timol 35.): a measure which, combined with other benefits, proved of such advantage to the city, that Timoleon was looked upon as their second founder: and during the interval of peace which fol- lowed, Agrigentum again attained to such great prosperity as to become once more the rival of Syracuse. Shortly after the accession of Agathocles, the Agrigentines, becoming apprehensive that he was aspiring to the dominion of the whole island, entered into a league with the Geloans and Messenians to oppose his power, and obtained from Sparta the assistance of Acrotatus the son of Cleomenes as their general : but the character of that prince frustrated all their plans, and after his expulsion they were compelled to purchase peace from Syracuse by the acknowledgement of the Hegemony or supremacy of that city, B.C. 314. (Diod. xix. 70, 71.) Some years afterwards, in B. c. 309, the absence of Agathocles in Africa, and the reverses sustained by his partisans in Sicily, appeared again to offer a favourable opening to the ambition of the Agrigentines, who chose Xenodocus for their general, and openly aspired to the Hegemony of Sicily, proclaiming at the same time the independence of the several cities. They were at first very successful: the powerful cities of Gela and Enna joined their cause, Herbessus and Echetla were taken by force ; but when Xenodocus ventured on a pitched battle with Leptines and De- mophilus, the generals of Agathocles, he sustained a severe defeat, and was compelled to shut himself up within the walls of Agrigentum. Agathocles himself shortly afterwards returned from Africa, and quickly recovered almost all that he had lost: his general Leptines invaded the territory of Agrigentum, totally defeated Xenodocus, and compiled the Agri- gentines once more to sue for peace. (Diod. xx. 31, 32, 56, 62.) After the death of Agathocles, Agrigentum fell under the yoke of Phintias, who became despot of the city, and assumed the title of king. We have very little information concerning the period of his rule, but he appears to have attained to great power, as we find Agyrium and other cities of the interior subject to his dominion, as well as Gela, which he destroyed, in order to found a new city named after himself. [GELA. J The period of his expulsion is unknown, but at the time when Pyrrhus landed in Sicily we find Agrigentum occupied by Sosistratus with a strong force of mercenary troops, who how- ever hastened to make his submission to the king of Epeirus. (Diod. xxii. Exc. Hoesch. p. 495 497.) On the commencement of the First Punic War, Agrigentum espoused the cause of the Carthaginians, and even permitted their general Hannibal to fortify their citadel, and occupy the city with a Cartha- ginian garrison. Hence after the Romans had secured the alliance of Hieron of Syracuse, their principal efforts were directed to the reduction of Agrigentum, and in B. c. 262 the two consuls L. Postumius and Q. Mamilius laid siege to it with their whole force. The siege lasted nearly as long AGRIGENTUM. as that by the Carthaginians in B. c. 406, and the Romans suffered severely from disease and want of provisions, but the privations of the besieged were still greater, and the Carthaginian general Hanno, who had advanced with a large army to relieve the city, having been totally defeated by the Roman consuls, Hannibal who commanded the army within the walls found it impossible to hold out any longer, and made his escape in the night with the Cartha- ginian and mercenary troops, leaving the city to its fate. It was immediately occupied by the Romans who carried off 25,000 of the inhabitants into sla- very. The siege had lasted above seven months, and is said to have cost the victorious army more than 30,000 men. (Diod. xxiii. Exc. Hoesch. p. 501 503; Polyb. i. 1719; Zonar. viii. 10.) At a later period of the war (B. c. 255) successive losses at sea having greatly weakened the Roman power in Sicily, the Carthaginian general Carthalo recovered possession of Agrigentum with comparatively little difficulty, when he once more laid the city in ashes and razed its walls, the surviving inhabitants having taken refuge in the temple of the Olympian Zeus. (Diod. I. c. p. 505.) From this time we hear no more of Agrigentum till the end of the First Punic War, when it passed under the dominion of Rome : but it must have in some degree recovered from its late calamities, as it plays no unimportant part when the contest between Rome and Carthage was renewed in the Second Punic War. On this occasion it continued steadfast in its adherence to the Romans, but was surprised and taken by Himilco, before Marcellus could arrive to its support (Liv. xxiv. 35.) : and from henceforth became the chief stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and held out against the Roman consul Laevinus long after the other cities in the island had submitted. At length the Numidian Mutines, to whose courage and skill the Carthaginians owed their protracted defence, having been offended by their general Hanno, betrayed the city into the hands of Laevinus, B. c. 210. The leading citizens were put to death, and the rest sold as slaves. (Liv. xxv. 40, 41, xxvi. 40.) . Agrigentum now became, in common with the rest of the Sicilian cities, permanently subject to Rome: but it was treated with much favour and enjoyed many privileges. Three years after its capture a number of new citizens from other parts of Sicily were established there by the praetor Mamilius, and two years after this the municipal rights and privileges of the citizens were determined by Scipio Africanus in a manner so satisfactory that they con- tinued unaltered till the time of Verres. Cicero repeatedly mentions Agrigentum as one of the most wealthy and populous cities of Sicily, the fertility of its territory and the convenience of its port rendering it one of the chief emporiums for the trade in corn. (Cic. Verr. ii. 50, 62, iii. 43, iv. 33, 43.) It is certain, however, that it did not in his day rank as a Roman colony, and it is very doubtful whether it ever attained this distinction, though we find that it was allowed to strike coins, with the Latin inscrip- tion AGRIGENTUM, as late as the time of Augustus. (Eckhel, D. N. vol. i. p. 193.)* If it really obtained the title and privileges of a colony under that em- peror, it must have soon lost them, as neither Pliny * Mommsen (Das Romische Munz- Wesen, p. 237) considers Agrigentum to have been on the footing of a Colonia Latina, like Nemausus in Gaul. il.l AGBIGENTUM nor Ptolemy reckon it among the Roman colonies in Sicily. From the time of Augustus we iind no his- torical mention of it under the Koinau eni].ire, but tinned existence is attested by the geographers and Itineraries, and as long as Sicily reiruined Mibjcct to the Greek empire, Agrigcntnm is still mentioned as one of its most considerable cities. (Strab. vi. ],. 272; Plin. //. N. iii. 8. 14; Ptol. iii. 4. 14 ; Itin. Ant. p. 88; Tab. Peut.;Const. Porph. -r. ii. 10.) It \\as one of the first places that fell into the hands of the Saracens on their invasion :.v in M.'7, and was wrested from them by the Normans under Roger Guiscard in 1086. The iniHlern city of Cinji'itti still contains about 13,000 inhabitants, and is the see of a bishop, and capital ; the .-even districts or Intendenze into which icily is now divided. The. situation of Agrigentum is well described by ulybius (ix. 27). It occupied a hill of considerable extent, ri.-ing between two small rivers, the Acragas and Hyp.-as, of which the southern front, though of small elevation, presented a steep escarpment, run- ning nearly in a straight line from E. to W. From ;he ground sloped gradually upwards, though traversed by a cross valley or depression, towards a much more elevated ridge which formed the northern rtion of the city, and was divided into two sum- te north-western, on which stands the modern ity of Girgenti, and the north-eastern, which de- rived from a temple of Athena, that crowned its height, the name of the Athenaean hill (<5 'Aflrjralbs A(!^>os, Diod. xiii. 85). This summit, which at- tains to the height of 1200 feet above the sea, and is the most elevated of the whole city, is completely precipitous and inaccessible towards the N. and E., and could be approached only by one steep and narrow path from the city itself. Hence, it formed the natural citadel or acropolis of Agrigentum, while the gentle slopes and broad valley which separate it from the southern ridge, now covered with gardens and fruit-trees, afforded ample space for the ex- :i and development of the city itself. Great as \\as the natural strength of its position, the whole city was surrounded with walls, of which consider- able portions still remain, especially along the southern front : their whole circuit was about 6 miles. The peculiarities of its situation sufficiently explain the circumstances of the two great sieges of Agrigentum, in both of which it will be observed that the as- sailants confined all their attacks to the southern and south-western parts of the city, wholly neglect- ing the north and east. Diodorus, indeed, expressly tells us that there was only one quarter (that ad- joining the river Hypsas) where the walls could be approached by military engines, and assaulted with any prospect of success. (Diod. xiii. 85.) Agrigentum was not less celebrated in ancient times for the beauty of its architecture, and the splendour and variety of its buildings, both public and private, than for its strength as a fortress. Pindar calls it " the fairest of mortal cities" (KO\- X'HTTO. fipoTtuv iro^cav, Pyth. xii. 2), though many of its most striking ornaments were probably not erected till after his time. The magnificence of the private dwellings of the Agrigentines is sufficiently attested by the saying of Empedocles already cited : their public edifices arc the theme of admiration with many ancient writers. Of its temples, pro- bably the most ancient were that of Zeus Atabyrios, whose worship they derived from Rhodes, and that of Athena, both of which stood on the highest AGRIGENTUM. 77 summit of the Athenaean hill above the city. (Polyb. I c.) The temple of Zeus Polieus, the construction of which is ascribed to Phalaris (Po- Ivaen. v. 1. 1), is supposed to have stood on the hill occupied by the modern city of Girgenti, which appears to have formed a second citadel or acropolis, in some measure detached from the more lofty summit to the east of it. Some fragments of ancient walls, still existing in those of the church of Sta Maria de 1 Greci, are considered to have belonged to this temple. But far more celebrated than these was the great temple of the Olympian Zeus, which was commenced by the Agrigentines at the jteriod of then: greatest power and prosperity, but was not quite finished at the time of the Car- thaginian invasion in B. c. 406, and in consequence of that calamity was never completed. It is de- scribed in considerable detail by Diodorus, who tells us that it was 340 feet long, 160 broad, and 120 in height, without reckoning the basement. The columns were not detached, but engaged in the wall, from which only half of their circumference projected : so gigantic were their dimensions, that each of the flutings would admit a man's body. (Diod. xiii. 82; Polyb. ix. 27.) Of this vast edifice nothing remains but the basement, and a few fragments of the columns and entablature, but even these suffice to confirm the accuracy of the statements of Diodorus, and to prove that the temple must not only have greatly exceeded all others in Sicily, but was probably surpassed hi magnitude by no Grecian building of the kind, except that of Diana at Ephesus. A considerable portion of it (including several columns, and three gigantic figures, which served as Atlantes to sup- port an entablature), appears to have remained stand- ing till the year 1401, when it fell down : and the vast masses of fallen fragments were subsequently employed hi the construction of the mole, which protects the present port of Girgenti. (FazeU. vol. i. p. 248 ; Smyth's Sicily, p. 203.) Besides these, we find mention in ancient writers of a temple of Hercules, near the Agora, containing a statue of that deity of singular beauty and excel- lence (Cic. Verr. iv. 43), and one of Aesculapius without the walls, on the south side of the city (Cic. 1. c. ; Polyb. i. 1\8), the remains of which are still visible, not far from the bank of the river Acragas. It contained a celebrated statue of Apollo, in bronze, the work of Myron, which Verres in vain endeavoured to carry off. Of the other temples, the ruins of which are extant on the site of Agrigentum, and are celebrated by all travellers in Sicily, the ancient appellations cannot be determined with any certainty. The most conspicuous are two which stand on the southern ridge facing the sea : one of these at the S. E. angle of the city, is commonly known as the temple of Juno Lacinia, a name which rests only on a misconception of a passage of Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 9. 36) : it is in a half ruined state, but its basement is complete, and many of its columns still standing. Its position on the projecting angle of the ridge, with a precipitous bank below it on two sides, gives it a singularly picturesque and striking character. A few hundred paces to the \V. of this stands another temple, in far better pre- servation, being indeed the most perfect which remains in Sicily ; it is commonly called the temple of Concord, from an inscription said to have been discovered there, but which (if authentic) is of Roman date, while both this temple and that just 78 AGRIGENTUM. described must certainly be referred to the most flourishing period of Agrigentine history, or the fifth century B. c. They are both of the Doric order, and of much the same dimensions : both are peri- pteral, or surrounded with a portico, consisting of 6 columns in front, and 13 on each side. The existing vestiges of other temples are much, less considerable : one to the W. of that of Concord, of which only one column is standing, is commonly regarded as that of Hercules, mentioned by Cicero. Its plan and design have been completely ascertained by recent exca- vations, which have proved that it was much the largest of those remaining at Agrigentum, after that of the Olympian Zeus : it had 15 columns hi the side and 6 hi front. Another, a little to the north of it, AGRIGENTUM. of which considerable portions have been preserved, and brought to light by excavation on the spot, bears the name, though certainly without authority, of Castor and Pollux : while another, on the op- posite side of a deep hollow or ravine, of which two columns remain, is styled that of Vulcan. A small temple or aedicula, near the convent of S. Nicolo, is commonly known by the designation of the Oratory of Phalaris : it is of insignificant size, and certainly of Roman date. The church of St. Blasi, or S. Biagio, near the eastern extremity of the Athenaean hill, is formed out of the cella of an ancient temple, which is supposed, but without any authority, to "have been dedicated to Ceres and Proserpine. (For full details concerning these temples, and the other ruins still A A. Modern City of Girgenti. B B. The Athenaean Hill. C C. Ancient Walls of Agrigentum. D. Ancient Port. E. Modern Port. F F. Ancient Burial Ground. G G. River Hypsas (F. Drarjo). H H. River Acragas (F. di S. Biagio). 1. Temple of Zeus Polieus. 2. of Athena (?). 3. of Ceres and Proserpine PLAN OF AGRIGENTUM. 4. Temple of Juno Lacinia. 5. of Concord. 6. of Hercules. 7. of Zeus Olympius. 8. of Castor and Pollux. 9. of Vulcan. 10. of Aesculapius. 1 1. called the Oratory of Phalaris. 12. Tomb of Theron. 13. Supposed site of Piscina described by Diodorns. AGRIGENTUM. visible at Girgenti, see Swinburne's Travels, vol. ii. p. 280291 ; Smyth's Sicily, p. 207 212 ; D'Or- ville's Sicula, p. 89 103 ; Sicfert, Akragas, p. 24 38 ; and especially Serra di Falco, A ntichita della Sicilia, vol. iii., who gives the results of recent labours on the spot, many of which were unknown tu former writers.) Next to the temple of the Olympian Zeus, the public work of which Diodorus speaks with the greatest admiration (xi. 25, xiii. 72), was a. piscina, or reservoir of water, constructed in the time of Thcron, which was not less than seven stadia in cir- cumference, and was plentifully stocked with fish, and frequented by numerous swans. It had fallen into drrav, and become filled with mud hi the time of the historian, but its site is supposed to be still indicated by a deep hollow or depression in the S. western portion of the city, between the temple of Vulcan and that of Castor and Pollux, now converted into a garden. Connected with this was an extensive system of subterranean sewers and conduits for water, constructed on a scale far superior to those of any other Greek city: these were called Phaeaces, from the name of their architect Phaeax. It was not only in their public buildings that the Agrigcntines, during the flourishing period of their city, loved to display their wealth and luxury. An ostentatious magnificence appears to have charac- tcrix.'d their habits of life, in other respects also : and showed itself especially in their love of horses and chariots. Their territory was celebrated for the excellence of its breed of horses (Virg. Aen. iii. 704), an advantage which enabled them repeatedly to bear away the prize in the chariot-race at the Olympic games : and it is recorded that after one of "these occasions the victor Exaenetus was accom- panied on his triumphant entry into his native city by no less than three hundred chariots, all drawn by white horses. (Diod. xiii. 82.) Not less con- spicuous and splendid were the hospitalities of the more wealthy citizens. Those of Theron are cele- brated by Pindar (01. iii. 70), but even these pro- bably fell short of those of later days. Gellias, a citizen noted even at Agrigentum for his wealth and splendour of living, is said to have lodged and feasted at once five hundred knights from Gela, and Antisthenes, on occasion of his daughter's marriage, furnished a banquet to all the citizens of Agri- gentum in the several quarters they inhabited. (Diod. xiii. 83, 84.) These luxurious habits were not unaccompanied with a refined taste for the cul- tivation of the fine arts : then: temples and public buildings were adorned with the choicest works oi sculpture and painting, many of which were carried off by Himilco to Carthage, and some of them after fall of that city restored to Agrigentum by Scipio Africanus. (Diod. xiii. 90; Cic. Verr. iv. 43; Plin H. N. xxxv. 9. s. 36.) A like spirit of ostentation was displayed in the magnitude and splendour of their sepulchral monuments ; and they are said to ive even erected costly tombs to favourite horses and to pet birds. (Diod. xiii. 82 ; Plin. H. N. 42 64; Solin. 45. 11.) The plain in front of the city, occupying the space from the southern wall to the confluence of the two rivers, was full of these sepulchres and monuments, among which that o: Theron was conspicuous for its magnitude (Diod. xiii. 86) : the name is now commonly given to the only structure of the kind which remains, though it is of inconsiderable dimensions, and belongs, hi al probability, to the Roman period. AGRIGENTUM. 79 For this extraordinary wealth Agrigentum was ndebted, in a great measure, to the fertility of its erritory, which abounded not only in corn, as it continued to do in the time of Cicero, and still does at the present day, but was especially fruitful in vines and olives, with the produce of which it sup- plied Carthage, and the whole of the adjoining parts f Africa, where their cultivation was as yet un- cnown. (Diod. xi. 25, xiii. 81.) The vast multi- ,ude of slaves which fell to the lot of the Agrigen- ines, after the great victory of Himera, contributed greatly to their prosperity, by enabling them to ring into careful cultivation the whole of their extensive and fertile domain. The vallies on the )anks of its river furnished excellent pasture for sheep (Pind. Pyth. xii. 4), and in later times, when he neighbouring country had ceased to be so richly :ultivated, it was noted for the excellence of its cheeses. (Plin. H. N. xi. 42. 97.) It is difficult to determine with precision the extent and boundaries of the territory of Agri- Centum, which must indeed have varied greatly at different times : but it would seem to have extended as far as the river Himera on the E., and to have been bounded by the Halycus on the W. ; though at one tune it must have comprised a considerable extent of country beyond that river; and on the other hand Heraclea Minoa, on the eastern bank of the Halycus, was for a long time independent of Agrigentum. Towards the interior it probably extended as far as the mountain range in which those two rivers have their sources, the Nebrodes Mons, or Monte Madonia, which separated it from the territory of Himera. (Siefert, Akragas, p. 9 11.) Among the smaller towns and places subject to its dominion are mentioned MOTYUM and EKBESSUS, hi the mterior of the country, CAMICUS, the ancient fortress of Cocalus (erroneously supposed by many writers to have occupied the site of the modern town of Girgenti), ECNOMUS on the borders of the territory of Gela, and subsequently PHINTIAS, founded by the despot of that name, on the site of the modern Alicata. Of the two rivers which flowed beneath the walls of Agrigentum, the most considerable was the ACRAGAS, from whence according to the common consent of most ancient authors the city derived its name. Hence it was worshipped as one of the tutelary deities of the city, and statues erected to it by the Agrigentines, both in Sicily and at Delphi, in which it was represented under the figure of a young man, probably with horns on his forehead, as we find it on the coins of Agrigentum. (Pind. 01. ii. 16, Pyth.xii. 5, and Schol. ad locc.; Empedocles ap. Diog. Laert. viii. 2. 63 ; Steph. Byz. v. 'AKpdyas ; Aelian. V. H. ii. 33 ; Castell. Numm. Sic. Vet. p. 8.) At its mouth was situated the Port or Emporium of Agrigentum, mentioned by Strabo and Ptolemy; but notwithstanding the ex- tensive commerce of which this was at one time the centre, it had little natural advantages, and must have been mainly formed by artificial constructions. Considerable remains of these, half buried in sand, were still visible in. the time of Fazello, but have since in great measure disappeared. The modern port of Girgenti is situated above three miles further west. (Strab. vi. pp. 266, 272 ; Ptol. iii. 4. 6 ; Fazell. vi. 1. p. 246 ; Smyth's Sicily, pp. 202, 203.) Among the natural productions of the neighbour- hood of Agrigentum, we find no mention hi ancient authors of the mines of sulphur, which are at the 80 AGRIGENTUM. present day one of the chief sources of prosperity to Giryenti ; but its mines of salt (still worked at place called Aborangi, about 8 miles north of the city), are alluded to both by Pliny and Solinus. (Pirn. H. N. xxxi. 7. s. 41 ; Solin. 5. 18, 19.) Several writers also notice a fountain in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the city, which produced Petroleum or mineral oil, considered to be of great efficacy as a medicament for cattle and sheep. The source still exists in a garden not far from Girgenti, and is frequently resorted to by the peasants for the same purpose. (Dioscorid. i. 100 ; Plin. H.N. xxxv. 15. s. 51 ; Solin. 5. 22 ; Fazell. de Reb. Sicul. vi. p. 261 ; Ferrara, Campi Flegrei della Sicilia, p. 43.) A more remarkable object is the mud volcano (now called by the Arabic name of Maccalubba) about 4 miles N. of Girgenti, the phenomena of which are described by Solinus, but unnoticed by any previous writer. (Solin. 5. 24 ; Fazell. p. 262 ; Ferrara, I c. p. 44 ; Smyth's Sicily, p. 213.) Among the numerous distinguished citizens to whom Agrigentum gave birth, the most conspicuous is the philosopher Empedocles : among his contem- poraries we may mention the rhetorician Polus, and the physician Acron. Of earlier date than these was the comic poet Deinolochus, the pupil, but at the same time the rival, of Epichannus. Philinus, the historian of the First Punic War, is the latest writer of eminence, who was a native of Agri- gentum. The extant architectural remains of Agrigentum have been already noticed in speaking of its ancient edifices. Besides these, numerous fragments of buildings, some of Greek and others of Roman date, are scattered over the site of the ancient city : and great numbers of sepulchres have been excavated, some in the plain below the city, others within its walls. The painted vases found in these tombs greatly exceed in number and variety those dis- covered in any other Sicilian city, and rival those of Campania and Apulia. But with this exception comparatively few works of art have been discovered. A sarcophagus of marble, now preserved in the cathedral of Girgenti, on which is represented the story of Phaedra and Hippolytus, has been greatly extolled by many tra- vellers, but its merits are certainly over-rated. There exist under the hill occupied by the modern city extensive catacombs or excavations in the rock, which have been referred by many writers to the ancient Sicanians, or ascribed to Daedalus. It is probable that, like the very similar excavations at Syracuse, they were, in fact, constructed merely in the process of quarrying stone for building purposes. The coins of Agrigentum, which are very nume- rous and of beautiful workmanship, present as their common type an eagle on the one side and a crab on the other. The one here figured, on which the eagle is represented as tearing a hare, belongs un- COIN OF AGRIGENTUai. AGYRIUM. doubtedly to the most flourishing period of Agri- gentine history, that immediately preceding the siege and capture of the city by the Carthaginians, B. c. 406. Other corns of the same period have a quadriga on the reverse, in commemoration of their victories at the Olympic games. [E. H. B.] AGRI'NIUM ('Aypiviou), a town of Aetolia, situ- ated towards the NE. of Aetolia, near the Achelous. Its position is quite uncertain. From its name we might conjecture that it was a town of the Agraei; but the narrative in Polybius (v. 7) would imply that it was not so far north. In B. c. 314 we find Agrinium in alliance with the Acarnanians, when Cassander marched to the assistance of the latter against the Aetolians. As soon as Cassander returned to Macedonia, Agrinium was besieged by the Aeto- lians, and capitulated; but the Aetolians treacherously put to death the greater part of the inhabitants. (Diod. xix. 67, 68; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 156.) AGRIO'PHAGI (Peripl. Mar. Er. p. 2), were the same people as the Creophagi or flesh- eaters of Aethiopia Troglodytica. In summer they drove their herds down to the pastures of the Astaboras ; in the rainy season they returned to the Aethiopian mountains east of that river. As their name and diet imply they were hunters and herdsmen. [AE- THIOPIA.] [W. B. D.] AGRIPPINENSIS COLONJA. [COLOXIA.] AGYLLA. [CAERE.] AGY'RIUM ('Ay&ptov: Eth. 'Kyvpivaios Agyri- nensis), a city of the interior of Sicily now called S. Filippo cFArgiro. It was situated on the summit of a steep and lofty hill, between Enna and Centuripa, and was distant 18 Roman miles from the former, and 12 from the latter. (Tab. Peut. The Itin. Ant. p. 93, erroneously gives only 3 for the former dis- tance.) It was regarded as one of the most ancient cities of Sicily, and according to the mythical tradi- tions of the inhabitants was visited by Heracles on his wanderings, who was received by the inhabitants with divine honours, and instituted various sacred rites, which continued to be observed in the days of Diodorus. (Diod. iv. 24.) Historically speaking, it appears to have been a Sicelian city, and did not re- ceive a Greek colony. It is first mentioned hi B. c. 404, when it was under the government of a prince of the name of Agyris, who was on terms of friend- ship and alliance with Dionysius of Syracuse, and assisted him on various occasions. Agyris extended his dominion over many of the neighbouring towns and fortresses of the interior, so as to become the most powerful prince in Sicily after Dionysius him- self, and the city of Agyrium is said to have been at this time so wealthy and populous as to contain not less than 20,000 citizens. (Diod. xiv. 9, 78, 95.) During the invasion of the Carthaginians under Mago in B. c. 392, Agyris continued steadfast to the al- liance of Dionysius, and contributed essential service against the Carthaginian general. (Id. xiv. 95, 96.) From this time we hear no more of Agyris or his city during the reign of Dionysius, but in B. c. 339 we find Agyrium under the yoke of a despot named Apolloniades, who was compelled by Timoleon to ab- dicate his power. The inhabitants were now declared Syracusan citizens: 10,000 new colonists received allotments in its extensive and fertile territory, and the city itself was adorned with a magnificent theatre and other public buildings. (Diod. xvi. 82, 83.) At a later period it became subject to Phintias, king of Agrigentum : but was one of the first cities AHARNA. to throw ofi' his yoke, and a few years afterwards we find the Agyrinacans on friendly terms with Hieron king of Syracuse, for which they were rewarded by the gift of half the territory that had belonged to Amesclum. (Diod. xxii. Exe. Hoesch. pp. 495, 499.) Under the Roman government they continued to be a flourishing and wealthy community, and Cicero speaks of Agyrium as one of the most considerable cities of Sicily. Its wealth was chiefly derived from the fertility of its territory in corn: which previous to the arrival of Verres found employment for 250 .farmers (aratores), a number diminished by the ex- actions of his praetorship to no more than 80. (Cic. Verr. iii. 18, 2731, 51, 52.) From this period we have little further notice of it, in ancient times. It is classed by Pliny among the "populi stipendiarii" of Sicily, and the name is found both in Ptolemy and the Itineraries. In the middle ages it became cele- brated for a church of St. Philip with a miraculous altar, from whence the modem name of the town is derived. It became in consequence a great resort of pilgrims from all parts of the island, and is still a considerable place, with the title of a city and above 6000 inhabitants. (Plin. iii. 8. 14; Ptol. iii. 4. 13; Fazell. de Reb. Sicul vol. i. p. 435 ; Ortolani, Diz. Geogr. della Sicilia, p. 111.) The historian Diodorus Siculus was a native of Agyrium, and has preserved to us several particulars concerning his native town. Numerous memorials were preserved there of the pretended visit of He- racles : the impression of the feet of his oxen -was still shown in the rock, and a lake or pool four stadia in circumference was believed to have been excavated by him. A Temenos or sacred grove in the neigh- bourhood of the city was consecrated to Geryones, and another to lolaus, which was an object of peculiar veneration: and annual games and sacrifices were celebrated in honour both of that hero and of He- racles himself. (Diod. i. 4, iv. 24.) At a later period Timoleon was the chief benefactor of the city, where he constructed several temples, a Bouleuterion and Agora, as well as a theatre which Diodorus tells us was the finest in all Sicily, after that of Syracuse, (Id. xvi. 83.) Scarcely any remains of these build- ings are now visible, the only vestiges of antiquity being a few undefined fragments of masonry. The ruined castle on the summit of the hill, attributed by some writers to the Greeks, is a work of the Saracens in the tenth century. (Amico, ad Fazell. p. 440 ; Lex. Topogr. Sic. vol. i. p. 22.) [E. H. B.] ALABASTRITES. 81 COIN OF AGYRIUM. AHARNA, a town of Etruria, mentioned only by Livy (x. 25) during the campaign of Fabius in that country, B.C. 295. He affords no clue to its po- sition, which is utterly unknown. Cluverius and other writers have supposed it to be the same with ARNA, but this seems scarcely reconcilable with the circumstances of the campaign. (Cluver. Ital p. 626.) [E. H. B.] AIAS or AEAS (Afes opos, Ptol. iv. 5. 14; I'lin. vi. 29. s. 3^), was a headland of the limestone range which separates I'jijer l\n - y]>t from tlicl!d Sea. It was in the parallel of Thebes, and S. of the modern Koseir (Philoteras), in lat, 29. The dis- trict occupied by the Icthyophagi commenced a little to the north of the headland of Aias. [W. B. D.] ALABANDA (rj 'AAaSa^a, ra 'A\dSavSa: Eth. 'AAaaf8ety, Alabandeus, Alabandensis, Alabande- nus: Adj. Alabandicus), a city of Caria, was situ- ated 160 stadia S. of Tralles, and was separated from the plain of Mylasa by a mountain tract. Strabo describes it as lying at the foot of two hills (as some read the passage), which are so close together as to present the appearance of an ass with its panniers on. The modem site is doubtful; but ArabHissd, on a large branch of the Maeander, now called the Tshina, which joins that river on the S. bank, is supposed by Leake to represent Alabanda; and the nature of the ground corresponds well enough with Strabo's description. The Tshirui may probably be the Marsyas of Herodotus (v. 118). There are the remains of a theatre and many other buildings on this site; but very few inscriptions. Alabanda was noted for the luxurious habits of the citizens. Under the Roman empire it was the seat of a Conventus Juridicus or court house, and one of the most flourishing towns of the pro- vince of Asia. A stone called " lapis Alabandicus," found in the neighbourhood, was fusible (Plin. xxxvi. 8. s. 13), and used for making glass, and for glazing vessels. Stephanus mentions two cities of the name of Alabanda in Caria, but it does not appear that any other writer mentions two. Herodotus, however (vii. 195), speaks of Alabanda in Caria (jiov eV rfj Kaptp), which is the Alabanda of Strabo. The words of description added by Herodotus seem to imply that there was another city of the name ; and in fact he speaks, in another passage (viii. 136), of Alabanda, a large city of Phrygia. This Alabanda of Phrygia cannot be the town on the Tshina, for Phrygia never extended so far as there. [G. L.] ALABASTRA or ALABASTRON ('AAagao-rpci, 'AAaaj/ TrdAts, Ptol. iv. 5. 59 ; Plin. v. 9 s. 11, xxxvii. 8. s. 32), a city of Egypt, whose site is differently stated by Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny places it in Upper Egypt ; Ptolemy in the Heptanomis. It would accordingly be either south or north of the Mons Alabastrites. It was doubtless connected with the alabaster quarries of that mountain. If Ala- bastra stood in the Heptanomis, it was an inland town, connected with the Nile by one of the many roads which pervade the region between that river and the Arabian hills. [W. B. D] ALABASTRITES MONS ^AXajgcurrpivbv fycr, Ptol. iv. 5. 27), formed a portion of the limestone rocks which run westward from the Arabian hills into Upper and Middle Egypt. This upland ridge or spur was to the east of the city of Hermopolis Magna, in lat. 27-], and gave its name to the town of AJabastra. It contained large quarries of the beautifully veined and white alabaster which the Egyptians so largely employed for their sarcophagi and other works of art. The grottoes in this ridge are by some writers supposed to occupy the site of the city Alabastra (see preceding article), but this was probably further from the mountain. They were first visited by Sir Gardner Wilkinson in 1824. The grottoes of Koum-el-Ahmar are believed to be the same with the ancient excavations. They contain the names of some of the earliest Egyptian kings, but are inferior in size and splendour to the similar 82 ALABIS. grottoes at Benihassan. The sculptures in these catacombs are chiefly devoted to military subjects processions, in which the king, mounted on a chariot, is followed by his soldiers on foot, or in war-chariots, with distinctive weapons and standards. The monarch is also represented as borne in a kind of open litter or shrine, and advancing with his offerings to the temple of Phtaii. His attendants seem, from their dress, to belong to the military caste alone. (Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, p. 386. ; Mod. Egypt, vol. ii. p. 43.) [W. B. D.] ALABIS, ALABUS or ALABON ('AAO&&I/, Steph. Byz., Diod. ; "A\aos, Ptol. ; ALABIS, Sil. Ital. xiv. 227), a small river on the E. coast of Sicily, flowing into the Sinus Megarensis. Diodorus de- scribes it as a considerable stream issuing from a large basin, of artificial construction, which was regarded as the work of Daedalus, and emptying itself after a short course into the sea. (Diod. iv. 78; Vib. Sequest. p. 4.) This description exactly accords with that given by Cluverius of a stream called Lo Cantaro, which issues from a very co- pious source only half a mile from the coast, and flows into the sea just opposite the modern city of Augusta. Some traces of buildings were in his time still visible around the basin of its source. (Cluver. Sicil. p. 133; Fazell. vol. i. p. 158.) It is probable that the ABOLUS ( v AoAos) of Plutarch, on the banks of which Timoleon defeated Mamercus, the tyrant of Catana, in a pitched battle, is no other than the Alabus. (Pint. Timol. 34.) A town of the same name with the river is mentioned by Ste- phanus of Byzantium (v. 'AAagwv), but is not noticed by any other writer. [E. H. B.] ALAESA or HALE'SA ("AActto-a, Diod. ; Strab. ; Ptol.; Halesa, Sil. Ital. xiv. 218; Halesini, Cic. Plin.), a city of Sicily, situated near the north coast of the island, between Cephaloedium and Calacta. It was of Siculian origin, and its foundation is re- lated by Diodorus, who informs us that in B. c. 403 the inhabitants of Herbita (a Siculian city), having concluded peace with Dionysius of Syracuse, their ruler or chief magistrate Archonides determined to quit the city and found a new colony, which he settled partly with citizens of Herbita, and partly with mercenaries and other strangers who collected around him through enmity towards Dionysius. He gave to this new colony the name of Alaesa, to which the epithet Archonidea was frequently added for the purpose of distinction. Others attributed the foundation of the city, but erroneously, to the Carthaginians. (Diod. xiv. 16.) It quickly rose to prosperity by maritime commerce: and at the commencement of the First Punic War was one of the first of the Sicilian cities to make its submission to the Komans, to whose alliance it continued steadily faithful. It was doubtless to its conduct in this respect, and to the sen-ices that it was able to ren- der to the Romans during their wars in Sicily, that it was indebted for the peculiar privilege of retain- ing its own laws and independence, exempt from all taxation : an advantage enjoyed by only five cities of Sicily. (Diod. xiv. 16, xxiii. Exc. H. p. 501; Cic. Verr. ii. 49, 69, iii. 6.) In consequence of this advantageous position it rose rapidly in wealth and prosperity, and became one of the most flourish- ing cities of Sicily. On one occasion its citizens, having been involved in disputes among themselves concerning the choice of the senate, C. Claudius Pulcher was sent, at their own request in B. c. 95, to regulate the matter by a law, which he did to ALAGONIA. the satisfaction of all parties. But their privi- leges did not protect them from the exactions of Verres, who imposed on them an enormous contri- bution both in corn and money. (Id. ib. 73 75; Ep. ad Fam. xiii. 32.) The city appears to have subsequently declined, and had sunk in the time of Augustus to the condition of an ordinary muni- cipal town (Castell. Inscr. p. 27): but was still one of the few places on the north coast of Sicily which Strabo deemed worthy of mention. (Strab. vi. p. 272.) Pliny also enumerates it among the " stipendiariae civitates " of Sicily. (/?. N. iii. 8.) Great difference of opinion has existed with regard to the site of Alaesa, arising principally from the discrepancy in the distances assigned by Strabo, the Itinerary, and the Tabula. Some of these are un- doubtedly corrupt or erroneous, but on the whole there can be no doubt that its situation is correctly fixed by Cluverius and Torremuzza at the spot marked by an old church called Sta. Maria le Palate, near the modem town of Tusa, and above the river Pettineo. This site coincides perfectly with the expression of Diodorus (xiv. 1 6), that the town was built " on a hill about 8 stadia from the sea:" as well as with the distance of eighteen M. P. from Cephaloedium assigned by the Tabula. (The Itinerary gives 28 by an easy error.) The ruins described by Fazello as visible there in his time were such as to indicate the site of a large city, and several inscriptions have been found on the spot, some of -them referring distinctly to Alaesa. One of these, which is of considerable length and import- ance, gives numerous local details concerning the divisions of land, &c., and mentions repeatedly ;i river ALAESUS, evidently the same with the HA- LESUS of Columella (x. 268), and which is probably the modern Pettineo ; as well as a fountain named IPYRRHA. This is perhaps the same spoken of by Solinus (5. 20) and Priscian (Perieges. 500), but without mentioning its name, as existing in the terri- tory of Halesa, the waters of which were swoln and agitated by the sound of music. Fazello describes the ruins as extending from the sea-shore, on which were the remains of a large building (probably baths), for the space of more than a mile to the summit of a hill, on which were the remains of the citadel. About 3 miles further inland was a large fountain (probably the Ipyrrha of the inscription), with extensive remains of the aqueduct that con- veyed its waters to the city. All trace of these ruins has now disappeared, except some portions of the aqueduct: but fragments of statues, as well as coins and inscriptions, have been frequently dis- covered 6n the spot. (Fazell. de Reb. Sic. ix. 4; Cluver. Sicil. pp. 288 290; Boeckh, C. I. torn. iii. pp. 612 621; Castelli, Hist. Alaesae, Panorm. 1753; Id. Inscr. Sic. p. 109; Biscari, Viaggio in Sidlia, p. 243.) [E. H. B.] COIN OF AIAESA. ALAGO'NIA ('AAc^oi'ia), a town of Laconia near the Messenian frontier, belonging to the Eleu- b , b Stu : ALALCOMENAE. thero-Lacones, containing temples of Dionysus and Artemis. This town was distant .'*() stadia from (icrcnia, but its site is unknown. (Tans. iii. 21. 7, iii. 26. 11.) ALALCO'MENAE. i. ('AAC*^/, strab., Paus. ; 'A\a\Ko/j.fviov, Steph. B. ; Eth. 'A\a\Ko- fj.evifvs,'A\a\KO/j.fi'a'tos, 'AAaA/co/xeVtos : Sulinnri), an ancient town in Boeotia, situated at the foot of Mt. Tilphossium, a little to the E. of Coroneia, and near the lake Copais. It was celebrated for the worship of Athena, who was said to have been born there, and who is hence called Alalcomeneis ('AAoA- Koyuej/Tjfy) in Homer. The temple of the goddess stood, at a little distance from the town, on the Triton, a small stream flowing into the lake Copais. Beyond the modern village of Snlindri, the site of Alalcomenae, are some polygonal foundations, apparently those of a single building, which are probably remains of the peribolus of the temple. Both the town and the temple were plundered by Sulla, who carried off the statue of the goddess. (Horn. 11. iv. 8; Paus. ix. 3. 4, ix. 33. 5, seq.; Strab. pp. 410, 411, 413; Steph. B. s. v.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 135; Forchhammer, Hellenica, p. 185.) 2. Or ALCOMENAE f AAmyMPoi), said to be a town in Ithaca (Plut. Q?Mest. Graec. 43; Steph. B. *. t?.), or in the small island Asteris in the neigh- bourhood of Ithaca. (Strab. p. 456.) ALA'LIA. [ALERIA.] ALANDER, a river of Phrygia (Liv. xxxviii. 5, 18), which is twice mentioned by Livy, in his account of the march of Cn. Manlius. It was pro- bably a branch of the Sangarius, as Hamilton (Re- searches in Asia Minor, vol. i. pp. 458, 467) con- jectures, and the stream which flows in the valley of iad; but he gives no modern name to it. [G.L.] ALA'NI ('A.\avoi, J AA.ai)j>oi), a people, found h in Asia and in Europe, whose precise geogra- phical positions and ethnographical relations are diffi- cult to determine. They probably became first known to the Romans through the Mithridatic war, and the expedition of Pompey into the countries about the Caucasus; when they were found in the E. part of Caucasus, in the region which was called Albania by the Romans, but Alania by Greek writers, and where Alani are found down to a late period of the Greek empire. (Joseph. Ant. Jud. xviii. 4. s. 6; Lucan, x. 454; Procop. Pers. ii. 29, Goth. iv. 4; Const. Porph. de Adm. Imp. 42.) Valerius Flaccus (Arg. vi. 42) mentions them among the people of the Caucasus, near the Heniochi. Am- mianus Marcellinus, who tells us more about the Alani than any other ancient writer, makes Julian encourage his soldiers by the example of Pom- pey, " who, breaking his way through the Albani and the Massagetae, whom we now call Alani, saw the waters of the Caspian " (xxiii. 5). In the latter half of the first century we hear of the Alani in two very remote positions. On the one hand, Josephus, who describes them as Scythians dwelling about the river Tanais (Don) and the Lake Maeotis (Sea of Azov), relates how, in the time of Vespasian, being permitted by the king of Hyrcania to traverse " the pass which Alexander had closed with iron gates," they ravaged Media and Armenia, and re- turned home again. On the other hand, they are mentioned by Seneca (Thyest. 629) as dwelling on the Ister (Danube) ; and Martial (Epigr. vii. 30) ex- pressly calls them Sarmatians; and Pliny (iv. 12. s. 25) mentions Almii and Koxalani (i. e. Russ- ALANI. 83 Alans) among the generic names applied at different times to the inhabitants of the European Scythia or Sannatia. Thus there were Alani both in Asia, in t Ii ( '.uicasus, and in Europe, on the Maeotis and the Knxine; and also, according to Josephus, between these two positions, in the great plains N. of the Caucasus: so that they seem to have been spread over all the S. part of Russia in Europe. Under Hadrian and the Antonines we find the European Alani constantly troubling the frontier of the Da- nube (Ael. Spart. Had. 4. s. 6; Jul. Capit. Ant. Pi. 6. s. 8, Marc. 22. where they are mentioned with the Roxalani, Bastarnae, and Peucini); while the Alani of the E. again overran Media and Armenia, and threatened Cappadocia. (Dion Cass. Ixix. 15.) On this occasion the historian Arrian, who was go- vernor of Cappadocia under Hadrian, composed a work on the Tactics to be observed against the Alani (fKTais /car' 'AAcu'w*'), which is mentioned by Photius (Cod. Iviii. p. 15, a., Bekker), and of which a considerable fragment is preserved (Arrian. ed. Dubner, in Didot's Script. Graec. Bibl. pp. 250 253). Their force consisted in cavalry, like that of the European Alani (the iroXv'iinruv tyvXov 'AXavoav of Dionysius Periegetes, v. 308); and they fought without armour for themselves or their horses. As another mark of resemblance, though Arrian speaks of them as Scythians, a name which was vaguely used in his time for all the barbarians of NW. Asia (cont. Alanos, 30), he speaks of them elsewhere (Tact. 4) in close connection with the Sauromatae (Sarmatians), as practising the same mode of fighting for which the Polish lancers, de- scendants of the Sarmatians, have been renowned. Ptolemy, who wrote under the Antonines. mentions the European Alani, by the name of 'A\avvoi 2v- 0cu,*as one of the seven chief peoples of Sarmatia Europaea, namely, the Venedae, Peucini, Bastarnae, lazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, and Alauni Scythae; of whom he places the lazyges and Roxolani along the whole shore of the Maeotis, arid then the last two further inland (iii. 5. 19). He also mentions (ii. 14. 2) Alauni in the W. of Pannonia, no doubt a body who, in course of invasion, had established themselves on the Roman side of the Danube. Pto- lemy speaks of a Mt. Alaunus (TO 'AXavvov opos) in Sannatia, and Eustathius (ad Dion. Perieg. 305) says that the Alani probably derived their name from the Alanus, a mountain of Sarmatia. It is hard to find any range of mountains answering to Ptolemy's M. Alaunus near the position he assigns to the Alauni : some geographers suppose the term to describe no mountains, properly so called, but the elevated tract of land which forms the watershed between the Dniester and the Dnieper. The Euro- pean Alani are found in the geographers who fol- lowed Ptolemy. Dionysius Periegetes (v. 305) mentions them, first vaguely, among the peoples N. of the Palus Maeotis, with the Germans, Sarmatians, Getae, Bastamae, and Dacians; and then, more spe- cifically, he says (308) that their knd extends N. of the Tauri, " where are the Melanchlaeni, and Ge- loni, and Hippemolgi, and Neuri, and Agathyrsi, where the Borysthenes mingles with the Euxine." Some suppose the two passages to refer to different bodies of the Alani. (Bernhardy, ad loc.~) They are likewise called Sarmatians by Marcian of Hera- cleia (ru>v 'AXavuv Sap/aaroH/ tdvos: Peripl. p. 100, ed. Miller; Hudson, Geog. Min. vol. i. p. 56). The Asiatic Alani (A\avol 2Ku0cu) are placed by Ptolemy (vi. 14. 9) in the extreme N. of Scythia u 2 84 ALANI. within the Imaus, near the " Unknown Land ;" and here, too, we find mountains of the same name (i-a 'AXavd opn, 3, 11), E. of the Hyperborei M. ; he is generally supposed to mean the N. part of the Ural chain, to which he erroneously gives a direction W. and E. Our fullest information respecting the Alani is derived from Ammianus Marcellinus, who flourish- ed during the latter half of the fourth century (about 350400). He first mentions them with the Roxolani, the lazyges, the Maeotae, and the laxamatae, as dwelling on the shores of the Palus Maeotis (xxii. 8. 30); and presently, where the Riphaei M. subside towards the Maeo- tis, he places the Arimphaei, and near them the Massagetae, Alani, and Sargetae, with many other peoples little known (obscuri, quorum nee voca- bula nobis sunt nota, nee mores}. Again ( 48) on the NW. of the Euxine, about the river Tyras (Dniester), he places " the European Alani and the Costobocae, and innumerable tribes of Scy- thians, which extend to lands beyond human know- ledge ;" a small portion of whom live by agriculture ; the rest wander through vast solitudes and get their food like wild beasts ; then* habitations and scanty furniture are placed on waggons made of the bark of trees; and they migrate at pleasure, waggons and all. His more detailed account of the people is given when lie conies to relate that greater westward movement of the Huns which, in the reign of Valens, precipitated the Goths upon the Roman empire, A. D. 376. After describing the Huns (xxxi. 2), he says that they advanced as far as " the Alani, the ancient Massa- getae," of whom he undertakes to give a better account than had as yet been published. From the Ister to the Tanais dwell the Sauromatae; and on the Asiatic side of the Tanais the. Alani inhabit* the vast solitudes of Scythia; having their name from that of their mountains (ex montium appellatione cogno- minati, which* some understand to mean that Alani comes from ala, a word signifying a mountain). By their conquests they extended their name, as well as their power, over the neighbouring nations ; just as the Persian name was spread. He then describes these neighbouring nations ; the Neuri, inland, near lofty mountains ; the Budini and Geloni; the Aga- thyrsi ; the Melanchlaeni and Anthropophagi ; from whom a tract of uninhabited land extended E.- wards to the Sinae. At another part the Alani bordered on the Amazons, towards the E. (the Amazons being placed by him on the Tanais and the Caspian), whence they were scattered over many peoples throughout Asia, as far as the Ganges. Through these immense regions, but often far apart from one another, the various tribes of the AJani lived a nomade life : and it was only in process of time that they came to be called by the same name. He then describes their manners. They neither have houses nor till the land ; they feed on flesh and milk, and dwell on waggons. When they come to a pasture they make a camp, by placing their wag- gons in a circle ; and they move on again when the forage is exhausted. Their flocks and herds go with them, and their chief care is for their horses. They are never reduced to want, for the country through which they wander consists of grassy fields, with fruit-trees interspersed, and watered by many rivers. The weak, from age or sex, stay by the waggons and perform the lighter offices ; while the young men are trained together from their first boyhood to the practice of horsemanship and a sound knowledge of ALANT. the art of war. They despise going on foot. In person they are nearly all tall and handsome ; their hair is slightly yellow; they are terrible for the tempered sternness of their eyes. The lightness of their armour aids their natural swiftness; a circum- stance mentioned also, as we have seen, by Arrian, and by Josephus (B.J. vii. 7. 4), from whom we find that they used the lasso in battle : Lucian, too, de- scribes them as like the Scythians in their arms and their speech, but with shorter hair (Toxaris, 51, vol. ii. p. 557). In general, proceeds Ammianus, they resemble the Huns, but are less savage in form and manners. Their plundering and hunting ex- cursions had brought them to the Maeotis and the Cimmerian Bosporus, and even into Armenia and Media ; and it is to their life in those parts that the description of Ammianus evidently refers. Danger and war was their delight; death in battle bliss; the loss of life through decay or chance stamped disgrace on a man's memory. Their greatest glory was to kill a foe in battle, and the scalps of their slain enemies were hung to their horses for trappings. They frequented neither temple nor shrine; but, fixing a naked sword in the ground, with barbaric rites, they worshipped, in this symbol, the god of war and of their country for the time being. They practised divination by bundles of rods, which they released with secret incantations, and (it would seem) from the way the sticks fell they presaged the fu- ture. Slavery was unknown to them : all were of noble birth. Even their judges were selected for their long-tried pre-eminence in war. Several of these particulars are confirmed by Joniandes (de Rebus Geticis, 24). Claudian also mentions the Alani as dwelling on the Maeotis, and connects them closely with the Massagetae (In Rufin. i. 312): " Massagetes, caesamque bibens Maeotida Alanus." Being vanquished by the Huns, who attacked them in the plains E. of the Tanais, the great body of the Alani joined their conquerors in their invasion of the Gothic kingdom of Hermanric (A. D. 375), of which the chief part of the European Alani were already the subjects. In the war which soon broke out between the Goths and Romans in Maesia, so many of the Huns and Alani joined the Goths, that they are distinctly mentioned' among the invaders who were defeated by Theodosius, A. D. 379 382. Henceforth we find, in the W., the Alani constantly associated with the Goths and with the Vandals, so much so that Procopius calls them a tribe of the Goths (Yor6iKbv edvos: Vand. i. 3). But their movements are more closely connected with those of the Vandals, in conjunction with whom they are said to have settled in Pannonia; and, retiring thence through fear of the Goths, the two peoples invaded Gaul in 406, and Spain in 409. (Procop. I. c. ; Jornandes, de Reb. Get. SI; Clinton, F. R. s. a.; comp. Gibbon, c. 30, 31.) In 411 the Alani are found in Gaul, acting with the Burgundians, Alamanni, and Franks. (Clinton, s. a.) As the Goths advanced into Spain, 414, the Alani and Vandals, with the Silingi, retreated before them into Lusitania and Baetica. (Clinton, s. a. 416.) In the ensuing campaigns, in which the Gothic king Wallia conquered Spain (418), the Alans lost their king Ataces, and were so reduced in numbers that they gave up their separate nation- ality, and transferred their allegiance to Gunderic, the king of the Vandals. (Clinton, s. a. 418.) After Gunderic's death, in 428, the allied barbarians ALAXI. partitioned Spain, the Suevi obtaining Gnllaeeia, the Alani Lusitaiiia and the province of New Carthage, and the Vandals Baetira. (Clinton, s. a.) Most of them accompanied Geiseric in his invasion of Africa in the following year (429 : AFRICA, VAN- DALI), and among other indications of their con- tinued consequence in Africa, we find an edict of Huneric addressed, in 483, to the bishops of the Vandals and Alans (Clinton, s. .); while in Spain we hear no more of them or of the Vandals, but the place of both is occupied by the Suevi. Meanwhile, returning to Europe, at the time of Attila's invasion of the Roman empire, we find in his camp the de- scendants of those Alans who had at first joined the Huns; and the personal influence of Ae'tius with Attila obtained the services of a body of Alani, who were settled in Gaul, about Valence and Orleans. (Gibbon, c. 35.) When Attila invaded Gaul, 451, he seems to have depended partly on the sympathy of these Alani (Gibbon speaks of a promise from their king Sangiban to betray Orleans); and the great victory of Chalons, where they served under Theodoric against the Huns, was nearly lost by their defection (451). Among the acts recorded of To- rismond, in the single year of his reign (451 452), is the conquest of the Alani, who may be supposed to have rebelled. (Clinton, s. a.) In the last years of the W. empire the Alans are mentioned with other barbarians as overrunning Gaul and advancing even into Lkrnria, and as resisted by the prowess of Ma- jorian (Clinton, s. a. 461; Gibbon, c. 36); but thenceforth their name disappears, swallowed up in the great kingdom of the Visigoths. So much for the Alani of the West. All this time, arid later, they are still found in their ancient settlements in the E., between the Don and Volga, and in the Caucasus. They are men- tioned under Justinian; and, at the breaking out of the war between Justin II. and Chosroes, king of Persia, they are found among the allies of the Ar- menians, under their king Saroes, 572 3. (Theo- phylact. op. Phot. Cod. Ixv. p. 26, b. 37, ed.Bekker.) The Alani of the Caucasus are constantly men- tioned, both by Byzantine and Arabian writers, in the middle ages, and many geographers suppose the Ossetes of Daghestan to be their descendants. The medieval writers, both Greek and Arab, call the country about the E. end of Caucasus Alania. Amidst these materials, conjecture has naturally been busy. From the Affghans to the Poles, there is scarcely a race of warlike horsemen which has not been identified with the Alani; and, in fact, the name might be applied, consistently with the ancient accounts, to almost any of the nomade peoples, con- founded by the ancients under the vague name of Scy- thians, except the Mongols. They were evidently a branch of that great nomade race which is found, in the beginning of recorded history, in the NW. of Asia and the SE. of Europe; and perhaps we should not be far wrong in placing then: original seats in the country nf the Kirghiz Tartars, round the head of the Caspian, whence we may suppose them to have spread W.-ward round the Euxine, and espe- cially to have occupied the great plains N. of the Caucasus between the Don and Volga, whence they issued forth into \V. Asia by the pu.-es of the Cau- casus. Their permanent settlement also in S-ir- matia (in S. Russia) is clearly established, and a comparison of the description of them by Ammianus Marcellinus with the fourth book of Herodotus can leave little doubt that they were a kindred race to ALATRIUM. 85 the Scythians of the latter, that is, the people of European Sarmatia. Of their language, one soli- tary relic has been preserved. In the Periplus of the Euxine (p. 5, Hudson, p. 213, Gail) we are told that the city of Theodosia was called in the Alan or Tauric dialect 'ApSagSo or 'ApSavSa, that is, the city of the Seven gods. (Klaproth, Tableaux de tAsie; Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. ii. pp. 845 850; Stritter, Mem. Pop. vol. iv. pp. 232, 395 ; De Guignes, Hist, des Huns, vol. ii. p. 279 ; Ukert, vol. iii. pt. 2. pp. 550 555; Georgii, vol. i. p. 152, vol. ii. p. 312.) [P. S.] ALA'NI and ALAUNI MONTES. [Ai* ALA'NIA. [ALANI.] ALATA CASTRA (-rrrepwr^ a Ptol. ii. 3. 13), in the territory of the Vacomagi (Murray and Inverness-shire) was the northernmost station of the Romans in Britain, and near Inverness. This fort was probably raised by Lolh'us Urbicus after his victories in Britannia Barbara A. D. 139, x> repress the incursions of the Caledonian clans : aut it was soon abandoned, and all vestige of if obliterated. (Capitohn. Antonin. P. 5 ; Pausan. viii. 43. 3.) [W. B. D.] ALATRIUM or ALETRIUM (AXtrpiov, Strab.; ALATRINATES, Liv. ; ALETRINATES, Plin. et Inscr.), a city of the Hernicans, situated to the E. of the Via Latina, about 7 miles from Ferentinum, and still called Alatri. In early times it appears to nave been one of the principal cities of the Hernican league, and in B. c. 306, when the general council of the nation was assembled to deliberate concerning war with Rome, the Alatrians, in conjunction with the citizens of Ferentinum and Veruli, pronounced against it. For this they were rewarded, after the defeat of the other Hernicans, by being allowed to retain their own laws, which they preferred to the Roman citizenship, with the mutual right of connu- bium among the three cities. (Liv. ix. 42, 43.) Its name is found hi Plautus (Captivi, iv. 2, 104), and Cicero speaks of it as in his time a municipal town of consideration (Or. pro Cluent. 16, 17). It subsequently became a colony, but at what period we know not: Pliny mentions it only among the "oppida" of the first region: and its municipal rank is confirmed by inscriptions of imperial tunes (Lib. Colon, p. 230; Plin. iii. 5. 9; Inscr. ap. Gruter. pp.422. 3, 424. 7; Orelli, Inscr. 3785; Zumpt, de Colon, p. 359). Being removed from the high road, it is not mentioned hi the Itineraries, but Strabo notices it among the cities of Latium, though he erroneously places it on the right or south side of the Via Latina. (v. p. 237.) The modem town of Alatri, which contains a population of above 8000 inhabitants, and is an episcopal see, retains the site of the ancient city, or. a steep hill of considerable elevation, at the foot of which flows the little river Cosa. It has few monu- ments of Roman times, but the remains of its massive ancient fortifications are among the most striking in Italy. Of the walls which surrounded the city itself great portions still remain, built of large polygonal blocks of stone, without cement, in the same style as those of Signia, Norba, and Ferentinum. But much more remarkable than these are the remains of the ancient citadel, which crowned the summit of the hill: its form is an irregular oblong, of about 660 yards in circuit, constituting a nearly level terrace supported on all sides by walls of the most massive polygonal construction, varying in height according to the declivity of the ground, but which G 3 86 ALAUNA. attain at the SE. angle an elevation of not less than 50 feet. It has two gates, one of which, on the N. side, appears to have been merely a postern or sally-port, communicating by a steep and narrow subterranean passage with the platform above: the principal entrance being on the south side, near the SE. angle. The gateways in both instances are square-headed, the architrave being formed of one enormous block of stone, which in the principal gate is more than 15 feet in length by 5^ in height. Vestiges of rude bas-reliefs may be still observed above the smaller gate. All these walls, as well as those of the city itself, are built of the hard limestone of the Apennines, in the style called Polygonal or Pelasgic, as opposed to the ruder Cyclopean, and are among the best specimens extant of that mode of construction, both from their enormous solidity, and the accuracy with which the stones are fitted to- gether. In the centre of the platform or terrace stands the modern cathedral, in all probability occupying the site of an ancient temple. The remains at Alatri have been described and figured by Madame Dionigi (Viaggio in alcune Citta del Lazio, Roma, 1809), and views of them are given hi Dodwell's Pelasgic Remains, pi. 9296. [E.H.B.] ALAUNA, a town of the Unelli, as Caesar (B. G. ii. 34) calls the people, or Veneti, as Ptolemy calls them. It is probably the origin of the modern town of Akaume, near Valognes, in the department of La Manche, where there are said to be Roman remains. [G. L.] ALAUNI. [ALANI.] ALA'ZON (Plin.vi. 10. s. 11), or ALAZO'NIUS ('AA.aa>i>ios, Strab. p. 500 : Alasan, Alacks), a river of the Caucasus, flowing SE. into the Cambyses a little above its junction with the Cyrus, and forming the boundary of Albania and Iberia. Its position seems to correspond with the Abas of Plutarch and Dion Cassius. [ABAS.] [P. S.] ALAZO'NES ('AXdfwro), a Scythian people on the Borysthenes (Dnieper), N. of the Callipidae, and S. of the agricultural Scythians : they grew corn for their own use. (Hecat. ap. Strab. p. 550; Herod, iv. 17, 52; Steph. B. s. v.; Val. Flacc. vi. 101; Ukert, vol. iii. pt. 2. p. 418.) [P. S.] ALBA DOCILIA, a town on the coast of Liguria, known only from the Tabula Peutingeriana, which places it on the coast road from Genua to Vada Sabbata. The distances are so corrupt as to afford us no assistance in determining its position: but it is probable that Cluver is right in identifying it with the modern Albissola, a village about 3 miles from Savona, on the road to Genoa. The origin and meaning of the name are unknown. (Tab. Peut. ; Cluver. Ital. p. 70.) [E. H. B.] ALBA FUCENSIS or FUCENTIS ("A\a, Strab. ; "A\Sa &OVKVTIS, Ptol. ; the ethnic Albenses, not Albani; see Varr. de L.L. viii. 35), an im- portant city and fortress of Central Italy, situated on the Via Valeria, on a hill of considerable eleva- tion, about 3 miles from the northern shores of the Lake Fucinus, and immediately at the foot of Monte Velino. There is considerable discrepancy among ancient writers, as to the nation to which it belonged : but Livy expressly tells us that it was in the territory of the Aequians (Albam in Aeqtios, x. 1), and in another passage (xxvi. II j ne speaks of the "Albensis ager" as clearly distinct from that of the Marsians. His testimony is confirmed by Appian (Annib. 39) and by Strabo (v. pp. 238, 240), who calls it the most inland Latin city, ALBA. adjoining the territory of the Marsians. Ptolemy on the contrary reckons it as a Marsic city, as do Silius Italicus and Festus (Ptol. iii. 1. 57; Sil. Ital. viii. 506; Festus v. Albesia, p. 4, ed. Miiller) : and this view has been followed by most modern writers. The fact probably is, that it was originally an Aequian town, but being situated on the frontiers of the two nations, and the Marsians having in later times become far more celebrated and powerful than their neighbours, Alba came to be commonly assigned to them. Pliny (H. N. iii. 12 17) reckons the Albenses as distinct both from the Marsi and Aequiculi : and it appears from in- scriptions that they belonged to the Fabian tribe, while the Marsi, as well as the Sabines and Peh'gni, were included hi the Sergian. No historical men- tion of Alba is found previous to the foundation of the Roman colony: but it has been generally as- sumed to be a very ancient city. Niebuhr even supposes that the name of Alba Longa was derived from thence: though Appian tells us on the con- trary that the Romans gave this name to their colony from their own mother-city (I. c.). It is more probable that the name was, in both cases, original, and was derived from their lofty situation, being connected with the same root as Alp. The remains of its ancient fortifications may however be regarded as a testimony to its antiquity, though we find no special mention of it as a place of strength previous to the Roman conquest. But immediately after the subjugation of the Aequi, in B. c. 302, the Romans hastened to occupy it with a body of not less than 6000 colonists (Liv. x. 1 ; Veil. "Pat. i. 14), and it became from this time a fortress of the first class. In B.C. 211, on occasion of the sudden advance of Hannibal upon Rome, the citizens of Alba sent a body of 2000 men to assist the Romans hi the defence of the city. But notwithstanding their zeal and promptitude on this occasion we find them only two years after (hi B. c. 209) among the twelve colonies which declared themselves unable to furnish any further contingents, nor did their pre- vious services exempt them from the same punishment with the rest for this default. (Appian, Annib. 39 ; Liv. xxvii. 9, xxix. 15.) We afterwards find Alba repeatedly selected on account of its great strength and inland position as a place of confinement for state prisoners ; among whom Syphax, king of Nu- midia, Perseus, king of Macedonia, and Bituitus, king of the Arverni, are particularly mentioned. (Strab. v. p. 240; Liv. xxx. 17, 45; xlv. 42; Val. Max. ix. 6. 3.) On the outbreak of the Social War, Alba with- stood a siege from the confederate forces, but it was ultimately compelled to surrender (Liv. Epit. Ixxii.). During the Civil Wars also it is repeatedly men- tioned in a manner that sufficiently attests its importance in a military point of view. (Caes. B. C. i. 15, 24; Appian, Civ. iii. 45, 47, v. 30; Cic. ad Att. viii. 12, A, ix. 6; Philipp. iii. 3, 15, iv. 2, xiii. 9). But under the Empire it attracted little attention, and we find no historical mention of it during that period: though its continued existence as a provincial town of some note is attested by inscriptions and other extant remains, as well as by the notices of it in Ptolemy and the Itineraries. (Ptol. 1. c.; Itin. Ant. p. 309; Tab. Peut.; Lib. Colon, p. 253; Muratori, Inscr. 1021. 5, 1038. 1; Orell. no. 4166.) Its territory, on account of its elevated situation, was more fertile in fruit than corn, and was particularly celebrated for the ex- ALBA. cellence of its nuts. (Sil. Ital. viii. 506 ; Plin. //. N. xv. 24.) During the later ages of the Roman empire Alba seems to have declined and sunk into insignificance, as it did not become the see of a bishn|t, nor i.s its name mentioned by Paulus Diaco- nus among the cities of the province of Valeria. At the jnvM-nt day the name of Alba is still rotained by a poor village of about 150 inhabitants, which occupies the northern and most elevated summit of the hill on which stood the ancient city. The remains of the latter are extensive and inter- osting, especially those of the walls, which present one of the most perfect specimens of ancient fortifi- cation to be found in Italy. Their circuit is about three miles, and they enclose three separate heights or summits of the hill, each of which appears to have had its particular defences as an arx or citadel, besides the external walls which surrounded the whole. They are of different construction, and probably belong to different periods: the greater part of them being composed of massive, but ir- regular, polygonal blocks, in the same manner as is found in so many other cities of Central Italy : while other portions, especially a kind of advanced out- work, present much more regular polygonal masonry, but serving only as a facing to the wall or rampart, the substance of which is composed of rubble-work. The former class of construction is generally referred to the ancient or Aequian city: the latter to the Roman colony. (See however on this subject a paper in the Classical Museum, vol. ii. p. 172.) Besides these remains there exist also the traces of an amphitheatre, a theatre, basilica, and other public buildings, and several temples, oue of which has been tonvcrted into a church, and preserves its ancient foundations, plan, and columns. It stands on a hill now called after it the Colle di S. Pietro, which forms one of the summits already described ; the two others are now called the Colle diPettorino and Colle diAlbe, the latter being the site of the modern village. (See the annexed plan). Numerous inscriptions belonging to Alba have been transported to the neighbouring ALBA. 87 PLAN OF ALBA FUCENSIS. A. Colle di Albe (site of the modern village). B. Colle di S. Pietro. C. Colle di Pettorino. an. Ancient Gates. b. Theatre. c. Amphitheatre. town of Avezzano, on the banks of the lake Fucinus : while many marbles and other architectural orna- ments were carried off by Charles of Anjou to adorn the convent and church founded by him in com- memoration of his victory at Tagliacozzo, A. D. 1268. (Promis, Antichitd di Alba Fucense. 8vo. Roma, 1836; Kramer, Der Fuciner See. p. 55 57; Hoare's Classical Tour, vol. i. p. 371). [E. H. B.] ALBA HELVORUM or HELVIORUM(Plin.iii. 4. s. 5. xiv. 3. s. 4.), a city of the Helvii. a tribe men- tioned by Caesar (.B. G. vii. 7, 8) as separated from the Arverni by the Mons Cevenna. The modern Alps or Aps, which is probably on the site of this Alba, contains Roman remains. An Alba Augusta, mentioned by Ptolemy, is supposed by D'Anville {Notice de la Gaule Ancienne) and others to be the same as Alba Helviorum ; but some suppose Alba Augusta to be represented by Aups. [G. L.] ALBA JULIA. [APULUM.] ALBA LONG A ("AAgo: Albani), a very an- cient city of Latium, situated on the eastern side of the lake, to which it gave the name of Lacus Al- banus, and on the northern declivity of the mountain, also known as Mons Albanus. All ancient writers agree in representing it as at one tune the most powerful city in Latium, and the head of a league or confederacy of the Latin cities, over which it exer- cised a kind of supremacy or Hegemony; of many of these it was itself the parent, among others of Rome itself. But it was destroyed at such an early period, and its history is mixed up with so much that is fabulous and poetical, that it is almost impossible to separate from thenee the really historical elements. According to the legendary history universally adopted by Greek and Roman writers, Alba was founded by Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, who re- moved thither* the seat of government from Lavi- nium thirty years after the building of the latter city (Liv. i. 3 ; Dion. Hal. i. 66 ; Strab. p. 229) ; and the earliest form of the same tradition appears to have assigned a period of 300 years from its foundation to that of Rome, or 400 years for its total duration till its destruction by Tullus Hostilius. (Liv. i. 29 ; Justin, xliii. 1 ; Virg. Aen. i. 272 ; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 205.) The former interval was afterwards ex- tended to 360 years in order to square with the date assigned by Greek chronologers to the Trojan war, and the space of time thus assumed was portioned out among the pretended kings of Alba. There can be no doubt that the series of these kings is a clumsy forgery of a late period; but it may probably be ad- mitted as historical that a Silvian house or gens was the reigning family at Alba. (Niebuhr, I. c.) From this house the Romans derived the origin of their own founder Romulus ; but Rome itself was not a colony of Alba in the strict sense of the term ; nor do we find any evidence of those mutual relations which might be expected to subsist between a metro- polis or parent city and its offspring. In fact, no mention of Alba occurs in Roman history from the foundation of Rome till the reign of Tullus Hostilius, when the war broke out which terminated in the de feat and submission of Alba, and its total destruction a few years afterwards as a punishment for the treachery of its general Metius Fufetius. The details of this war are obviously poetical, but the destruction of Alba may probably be received as an historical event, though there is much reason to suppose that it was the work of the combined forces of the Latins, and that Rome had comparatively little share in its acomplishment. (Liv. i. 29; Dion. Hal. iii. 31; G 4 S3 ALBA. Strab. v. p. 231 ; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 350,351.) The city was never rebuilt; its temples alone had been spared, and these appear to have been still existing in the time of Augustus. The name, however, was retained not only by the mountain and lake, but the valley immediately subjacent was called the Vallis Albana, and as late as B. c. 339 we find a body of Koman troops described as encamping "sub jugo Albae Longae " (Liv. vii. 39), by which we must certainly understand the ridge on which the city stood, not the mountain above it. The whole sur- rounding territory was termed the " ager Albanus," whence the name of Albanum was given to the town which in later ages grew up on the opposite side of the lake. [ALBANUM.] Koman tradition derived from Alba the origin of several of the most illustrious patrician families the Julii, Tullii, Servilii, Quintii, & c . these were represented as migrating thither after the fall of their native city. (Liv. i. 30; Tac. Ann. xi. 24.) Another tradition appears to have described the expelled inhabitants as settling at Bo- villae, whence we find the people of that town as- suming in inscriptions the title o^ " Albani Longani Bovillenses." (Orell. no. 119, 2252.) But, few as are the historical events related of Alba, all authorities concur in representing it as having been at one time the centre of the league composed of the thirty 'Latin cities, and as exer- cising over these the same kind of supremacy to which Eome afterwards succeeded. It was even generally admitted that all these cities were, in fact, colonies from Alba (Liv. i. 52 ; Dion. Hal. iii. 34), though many of them, as Ardea, Laurentum, La- vinium, Praeneste, Tusculum, &c., were, according to other received traditions, more ancient than Alba itself. There can be no doubt that this view was altogether erroneous; nor can any dependence be placed upon the lists of the supposed Alban colonies preserved by Diodoras (Lib. vii. ap. Euseb. Arm. p. 185), and by the author of the Origo Gentis Romanae (c. 17), but it is possible that Virgil may have had some better authority for ascribing to Alba the foundation of the eight cities enumerated by him, viz. Nomentum, Gabii, Fidenae, Collatia, Pometia, Castrum Inui, Bola, and Cora. (Aen. vi. 773.) A statement of a very different character has been pre- served to us by Pliny, where he enumerates the " populi Albenses " who were accustomed to share icith the other Latins in the sacrifices on the Alban Mount (iii. 5, 9). His list, after excluding the Albani themselves, contains just thirty names ; but of these only six or seven are found among the cities that composed the Latin league in B. c. 493 : six or seven others are known to us from other sources, as among the smaller towns of Latium*, while all the others are wholly unknown. It is evident that we have here a catalogue derived from a much earlier state of things, when Alba was the head of a minor league, composed principally of places of secondary rank, which were probably either colonies or de- pendencies of her own, a relation which was after- wards erroneously transferred to that subsisting be- tween Alba and the Lathi league. (Niebuhr, vol. i. pp. 202, 203, vol. ii. pp. 18 22 ; who, however, pro- bably goes too far in regarding these " populi Al- benses " as mere denies or townships in the territory of Alba.) From the expressions of Pliny it would seem clear that this minor confederacy co-existed with * The discussion of this list of Pliny is given under the article LATIN i. ALBA. a larger one including all the Latin cities; for thero can be no doubt that the common sacrifices on the Alban Mount were typical of such a bond of union among the states that partook of them ; and the fact that the sanctuary on the Mons Albanus was the scene of these sacred rites affords strong confirm- ation of the fact that Alba was really the chief city of the whole Latin confederacy. Perhaps a still stronger proof is found in the circumstance that the Lucus Ferentinae, immediately without the walls of Alba itself, was the scene of their political as- semblies. If any historical meaning or value could be at- tached to the Trojan legend, we should be led to con- nect the origin of Alba with that of Lavinium, and to ascribe them both to a Pelasgian source. But there are certainly strong reasons for the contrary view adopted by Niebuhr, according to which Alba and Lavinium were essentially distinct, and even op- posed to one another; the latter being the head of the Pelasgian branch of the Latin race, while the former was founded by the Sacrani or Casci, and became the centre and representative of the Oscan element in the population of Latium. [LATIN:.] Its name which was connected, according to the Trojan le- gend, with the white sow discovered by Aeneas on his landing (Virg. Aen. iii. 390, viii. 45; Serv. ad loc.\ Varr. de L. L. v. 144; Propert. iv. 1. 35) was probably, in reality, derived from its lofty or Alpine situation. The site of Alba Longa, though described with much accuracy by ancient writers, had been in mo- dern tunes lost sight of, until it was rediscovered by Sir W. Gell. Both Livy and Dionysius distinctly describe it as occupying a long and narrow ridge be- tween the mountain and the lake; from which cir- cumstance it derived its distinctive epithet of Longa. (Liv. i. 3; Dion. Hal. i. 66; Varr. I c.) Precisely such a ridge runs out from the foot of the central mountain the Mons Albanus, now Monte Cavo parting from it by the convent of Palazzolo, and ex- tending along the eastern shore of the lake to its north-eastern extremity, nearly opposite the village of Marino. The side of this ridge towards the lake is completely precipitous, and has the appearance of having been artificially scarped or hewn away in it's upper part; at its northern extremity remain many blocks and fragments of massive masonry, which must have formed part of the ancient walls : at the opposite end, nearest to Palazzolo, is a commanding knoll forming the termination of the ridge in that direction, which probably was the site of the Arx, or citadel. The declivity towards the E. and NE. is less abrupt than towards the lake, but still very steep, so that the city must have been confined, as described by ancient authors, to the narrow summit of the ridge, and have extended more than a mile in length. No other rains than the fragments of the walls now remain ; but an ancient road may be dis- tinctly traced from the knoll, now called M te. Cuccu, along the margin of the lake to the northern ex- tremity of the city, where one of its gates must have been situated. In the deep valley or ravine between the site of Alba and Marino, is a fountain with a co- pious supply of water, which was undoubtedly the Aqua Ferentina, where the confederate Latins used to hold then* national assemblies ; a custom which evidently originated while Alba was the head of the league, but continued long after its destruction. (Gell, Topogr. of Rome, p. 90; Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 61 65; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 199.) The ALBA. territory <>f Alba, which still retained the name of " ager Albanne," was fertile and well cultivated, and celebrated in particular for the excellence of its wine, which was considered inferior only to the l-'aleniian. (Dion. Hal. i. 66; Plin. //. N. xxiii. 1. s.20; Hor. Carm. iv. 11. 2, Sat. ii. 8. 16.) It produced also a kind of volcanic stone, now called Peperino, which greatly excelled the common tufo of Koine as a build- ing material, and was extensively used as such under the name of " lapis Albums." The ancient quarries may he still seen in the valley between Alba and Marinn. ( Vitruv. ii. 7 ; 1'lin. 11. X. xxxvi. 22. s. 48 ; Suet. A wj. 72 ; Kibby, Roma Antica, vol. i. p. 240.) Previous to the time of SirW. Cell, the site of Alha I.oni^a was generally supposed to be occupied by the convent of Palazzolo, a situation which does not at all correspond with the description of the site found in ancient authors, and is too confined a space to have ever afforded room for an ancient city. Nie- buhr is certainly in error where he speaks of the modern village of Rocca di Papa as having been the arx of Alba Longa (vol. i. p. 200), that spot being far too distant to have ever had any immediate con- nection with the ancient city. [E. H. B.] ALBA POMPEIA ("AAga Hofunjta, Ptol. : Al- bcnses Ponipeiaui), a considerable town of the interior of Liguria, situated on the river Tanarus, near the northern foot of the Apennines, still called A Iba. We have no account in any ancient writer of its foundation, or the origin of its name, but there is every probability that it derived its distinctive appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey the Great) who conferred many privileges on the Cisalpine Gauls. An inscription cited by Spoil (Miscell. p. 163), according to which it was a Koinan colony, founded by Scipio Africanus and restored by Pompeius Magnus, is undoubtedly spu- rious. (See Mannert. vol. i. p. 295.) It did not possess colonial rank, but appears as a municipal town both in Pliny and on inscriptions : though the former author reckons it among the " nobiliaoppida" of Liguria. (Plin. iii. 5. s. 7; Ptol. iii. 1. 45; Orell. Inscr. 2179) It was the birth-place of the emperor Pertinax, whose father had a villa in the neighbourhood named the Villa Martis. (Dion Cass. Lcdii 3; Jul. Capitol. Pert. 1, 3.) Its territory was particularly favourable to the growth of vines. (1'lin. xvii. 4. s. 3.) Alba is still a considerable town with a population of 7000 souls; it is an episcopal see and the capital of a district. [E. H. B.] ALBA'NA. [ALBANIA.] ALBA'NIA (r) 'AAftw'a: Eth. and Adj. \\\- av6s, 'AA&mos, Albanus, Albanius), a country of Asia, lying about the E. part of the chain of Cau- casus. The first distinct information concerning it was obtained by the Romans and Greeks through Pompey's expedition into the Caucasian countries in pursuit of Mithridates (B. c. 65) ; and the know- ledge obtained from then to the time of Augustus is embodied in Strabo 's full description of the country and people (pp. 501, foil.). According to him, Albania was bounded on the E. by the Caspian, here called the Albanian Sea (Mare Albumin, Plin.); and on the N. by the Caucasus, here called Ceraunius Mons, which divided it from Sarmatia Asiatica. On the W. it joined Iberia : Strabo gives no exact boun- dary, but he mentions as a part of Albania tlio district of Cambysene, that is, the valley of the Cambyses, where he says the Armenians touch both the Iberians and the Albanians. On the S. it was divided from the Great Armenia by the river Cyrus ALBANIA. 89 (A'or). Later writers give the N. and W. boun- laries differently. It was found that the Albanians dwelt on both sides of the Caucasus, and accordingly Pliny carries the country further N. as far as the river Cabins (vi. 13. s. 15); and he also makes the river ALAZON (Alasan) the W. boundary towards Iberia (vi. 10. s. 11). Ptolemy (v. 12) names the river Soana (Socket) as the N. boundary; and for the W. he assigns a line which he does not exactly describe, but which, from what follows, seems to lie either between the Alazon and the Cambyses, or even W. of the Cambyses. The Soana of Ptolemy is probably the Stddk or S. branch of the great river Terek (mth. in 43 45' N. lat.), S. of which Ptolemy mentions the Gerrhus (Alksayf); then the Caesius, no doubt the Casius of Pliny (Koisoii); S. of which again both Pliny and Ptolemy place the Albanus (prob. Samour), near the city of Albana (DerbenC). To these rivers, which fall into the Caspian N. of the Caucasus, Pliny adds the Cyrus and its tribu- tary, the Cambyses. Three other tributaries of the Cyrus, rising in the Caucasus, are named by Strabo as navigable rivers, the Sandobanes, Khoetaces, and Canes. The country corresponds to the parts of Georgia called Schirvan or Guirvan, with the ad- dition (in its wider extent) of Leghistan and Daghes- tan. Strabo's description of the country must, of course, be understood as applying to the part of it known in his time, namely, the plain between the Caucasus and the Cyrus. Part of it, namely, in Cambysene (on the W.), was mountainous ; the rest was an extensive plain. The mud brought down by the Cyrus made the land along the shore of the Caspian marshy, but in general it was extremely fertile, producing corn, the vine, and vegetables of various kinds almost spontaneously; in some parts three harvests were gathered in the year from one sowing, the first of them yielding fifty-fold. The wild and domesticated animals were the finest of their kind; the dogs were able to cope with lions: but there were also scorpions and venomous spiders (the tarantula). Many of these particulars are con- firmed by modern travellers. The inhabitants were a fine race of men, tall and handsome, and more civilised than their neighbours the Iberians. They had evidently been originally a nomade people, and they continued so in a great degree. Paying only slight attention to agriculture, they lived chiefly by hunting, fishing, and the pro- duce of their flocks and herds. They were a war- like race, then- force being chiefly in their cavalry, but not exclusively. When Pompey marched into their country, they met him with an army of 60,000 infantry, and 22,000 cavalry. (Plut. Pomp. 35.) They were armed with javelins and bows and arrows, and leathern helmets and shields, and many of their cavalry were clothed in complete armour. (Plut. 1. c. ; Strab. p. 530.) They made frequent preda- tory attacks on their more civilised agricultural neighbours of Armenia. Of peaceful industry they were almost ignorant; their traffic was by barter, money being scarcely known to them, nor any regular system of weights and measures. Their power of arithmetical computation is said to have only reached to the number 100. (Eustath. ad Dion. 1 '. 2 '.)()) describes its course as parallel, and as of equal length with that of the Rhine, both of which notions are erroneous. The Albis was the most easterly and northerly river reached by the Romans in Germany. They first reached its banks in B. c. 9, under Claudius Drusiis, but did not cross it. (Liv. Epit. 140; Dion < 'ass. I. c.) Domitius Ahenobarbus, B. c. 3, was the first who crossed the river (Tacit. Arm. iv. 44), and t\v<> years later he came to the banks of the lower Albis, Tneeting the fleet which had sailed up the river from the sea. (Tacit. I c.; Veil. Pat.ii. 106; Dion Cass. Iv. 28.) After that time the Romans, not think- ing it safe to keep their legions at so great a distance, and amid such warlike nations, never again proceeded as far as the Albis, so that Tacitus, in speaking of it, says : flumen inclutum et notum olim; nunc tantum auditur. [L. S.] A'LBIUM INGAUNUM or ALBINGAUNUM ('AAgi77owor, Strab., Ptol.: Albenga), a city on the coast of Liguria, about 50 miles SW. of Genua, and the capital of the tribe of the Ingauni. There can be no doubt that the full form of the name, Albium Ingaunum (given by Pliny, iii. 5. s. 7, and Varro, de R. R. iii. 9. 17), is the correct, or at least the original one: but it seems to have been early abbreviated into Albingaunum, which is found in Strabo, Ptolemy, and the Itineraries, and is re- tained, with little alteration, in the modern name of Albenga. Strabo places it at 370 stadia from Vada Sabbata ( Vado), which is much beyond the truth: the Itin. Ant. gives the same distance at 20 M. P., which is rather less than the real amount. (Strab. p. 202 ; Ptol. iii. 1. 3 ; Itin. Ant. p. 295; Itin. Marit. p. 502; Tab. Peut.) It ap- pears to have been a municipal town of some im- portance under the Roman empire, and was occupied by the troops of Otho during the civil war between them and the Vitellians. (Tac. Hist. ii. 15.) At a later period it is mentioned as the birthplace of the emperor Proculus. (Vopisc. Procul. 12.) The modern city of Albenga contains only about 4000 inhabitants, but is an episcopal see, and the capital of a district. Some inscriptions and other Roman remains have been found here : and a bridge, called the Ponte Lungo, is considered to be of Roman con- struction. The city is situated at the mouth of the river Ccuta, which has been erroneously supposed to be the MKRULA of Pliny: that river, which still retains its ancient name, flows into the sea at An- ALnri.A. 93 (lord, about 10 in. further S. Nearly opposite to Allu-iKjd, is a little island, called GALMNAKIA IN- SII.A, from its abounding in fowls in a half-wild state: it still retains the name of Gallinara. (Varr. /. c.; Colnmell. viii. 2. 2.) [E. H. B.] A'LBH .M INTK.MK'LIUM or ALBINTEME'- I.U'.M ( y AAjoj/ 'lvTe/jLf\iov, Strab.; 'A\tvrf/nr : - \iov, Ptol.: }'!/tli/niglia), a city on the coast of Liguria, situated at the foot of the Maritime Alps, at the mouth of the river Rutuba. It was the capital of the tribe of the Intemelii, and was distant 1 6 Roman miles from the Portus Monocci (Monaco, Itin. Marit. p. 502). Strabo mentions it as a city of considerable size (p. 202), and we learn from Tacitus that it was of municipal rank. It was plundered by the troops of the emperor Otho, while resisting those of Vitellius, on which occasion the mother of Agricola lost her life. (Tac. Hist. ii. 13, Agr. 7.) According to Strabo (I. c.), the name of Albium applied to this city, as well as the capital of the Ingauni, was derived from their Alpine situ ation, and is connected with the Celtic word Alb or Alp. There is no doubt that in this case also the full form is the older, but the contracted name Albintemelium is already found in Tacitus, as well as in the Itineraries ; in one of which, however, it is corrupted into Vintimilium, from whence comes the modern name of Vintimiglia. It is still a consider- able town, with about 5000 inhabitants, and an episcopal see: but contains no antiquities, except a few Roman inscriptions. It is situated at the mouth of the river Roja, the RUTUBA of Pliny and Lucan, a torrent of a for- midable character, appropriately termed by the latter author " cavus," from the deep bed between precipi- tous banks which it has hollowed out for itself near its mouth. (Plin. I. c. ; Lucan. ii. 422.) [E. H. B.] ALBUCELLA ('AAgo/ceAa: Villa Fasila), a city of the Vaccaei in Hispania Tarraconensis (Itin. Ant. ; Ptol.), probably the Arbocala ('Apou/caA7j) which is mentioned by Polybius (iii. 14), Livy (xxi. 5), and Stephanus Byzantinus (s. v.), as the chief city of the Vaccaei, the taking of which, after an obstinate resistance, was one of Hannibal's first ex- ploits in Spain, B. o. 218. [P. S.] A'LBULA. 1. The ancient name of the Tiber. [TlBERIS.] 2. A small river of Picenum, mentioned only by Pliny (iii. 13. s. 18), who appears to place it N. of the Truentus, but there is great difficulty in as- signing its position with any certainty, and the text of Pliny is very corrupt: the old editions give AL- BULATES for the name of the river. [PICENUM.] 3. A small river or stream of sulphureous water near Tibur, flowing into the Anio. It rises in a pool or small lake about a mile on the left of the modern road from Rome to Tivoli, but which was situated on the actual line of the ancient Via Tibur- tina, at a distance of 16 M. P. from Rome. (Tab. Peut.; Vitruv. viii. 3. 2.) The name of Albula is applied to this stream by Vitruvius, Martial (i. 13. 2), and Statius (Silv. i. 3. 75), but more commonly we find the source itself designated by the name of Albulae Aquae (ra "AXSovXa vSara, Strab. p. 208). The waters both of the lake and stream are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and were in great request among the Romans for their medicinal pro- perties, so that they were frequently carried to Rome for the use of baths: while extensive Thermae were erected near the lake itself, the ruins of which are still visible. Their construction is commonly 94 ALBUM. ascribed, but without authority, to Agrippa. The waters were not hot, like most sulphureous sources, but cold, or at least cool, their actual temperature being about 80 of Fahrenheit ; but so strong is the sulphureous vapour that exhales from their surface as to give them the appearance alluded to by Martial, of " smoking." ( Canaque sulphureis A Ibula fumat aquis, I. c.) The name was doubtless derived from the whiteness of the water: the lake is now com- monly known as the Solfatara. (Plin. xxxi. 2. s. 6 ; Strab. I. c.; Paus. iv. 35. 10; Suet. Aug. 82, Ner. 31 ; Vitruv. /. c.) No allusion is found in ancient authors to the property possessed by these waters of incrusting all the vegetation on their banks with carbonate of lime, a process which goes on with such rapidity that great part of the lake itself is crusted over, and portions of the deposit thus formed, breaking off from time to time, give rise to little floating islands, analogous to those described by ancient writers in the Cutilian Lake. For the same reason the present channel of the stream has re- quired to be artificially excavated, through the mass of travertine which it had itself deposited. (Nibby, Dintomi di Roma, vol. i. pp. 4 6 ; Gell, Top. of Rome, pp. 40, 41.) It has been generally supposed that the Albunea of Horace and Virgil was identical with the Albula, but there appear no sufficient grounds for this as- sumption : and it seems almost certain that the " domus Albuneae resonantis " of the former ( Carm. i. 7. 12) was the temple of the Sibyl at Tibur itself, in the immediate neighbourhood of the cascade [TIBUR], while there are strong reasons for transferring the grove and oracle of Faunus, and the fountain of Albunea connected with them (Virg. Aen. vii. 82), to the neighbourhood of Ardea. [ARDEA.] [E. H. B.] ALBUM PROMONTORIUM (Plin. v. 19. s. 17), was the western extremity of the mountain range Anti-Libanus, a few miles south of ancient Tyre (Palai-Tyrus). Between the Mediterranean Sea and the base of the headland Album ran a narrow road, in places not more than six feet in breadth, cut out of the solid rock, and ascribed, at least by tradition, to Alexander the Great. Tliis was the communi- cation between a small fort or castle called Alexan- droschene (Scandalium) and the Mediterranean. (It. Hieros. p. 584.) The Album Promontorium is the modem Cape Blanc, and was one hour's journey to the north of Ecclippa (Dshib or Zib}. [W. B. D.] ALBURNUS MONS, a mountain of Lucauia, mentioned in a well-known passage of Virgil ( Georg* iii. 146), from which we learn that it was in the neighbourhood of the river Silarus. The name of Monte Alburno is said by Italian topographers to be still retained by the lofty mountain group which rises to the S. of that river, between its two tribu- taries, the Tanagro and Galore. It is more com- monly called the Monte di Postiglione, from the small town of that name on its northern declivity, and according to Cluverius is still covered with forests of holm-oaks, and infested with gad-flies. (Cluver. Hal. p. 1254 ; Romanelli, vol. i. p. 418 ; Zannoni, Carta del Regno di Napoli.} We find mention, in a fragment of Lucilius, of a PORTUS ALBURXUS, which appears to have been situated at the mouth of the river Silarus, and pro- bably derived its name from the mountain. (Lucil. Fr. p. 11, ed. Gerlach; Probus, ad Virg. G. iii. 146; Vib. Seq. p. 18, with Oberlin.) [E. H. B] ALCO'MENAE('AA/couevai: Eth.'. ALERIA. 1. A town of the Deuriopes on the Erigon, in Paeo- nia in Macedonia. (Strab. p. 327.) 2. [ALALCOMENAE, No. 2.] ALCYO'NIA ('AAKuoWa), a lake in Argolis, near the Lernaean grove, through which Dionysus was said to have descended to the lower world, in order to bring back Semele from Hades. Pausanias says that its depth was unfathomable, and that Nero had let down several stadia of rope, loaded with lead, with- out finding a bottom. As Pausanias does not men- j tion a lake Lerna, but only a district of this name, it is probable that the lake called Alcyonia by ! Pausanias is the same as the Lerna of other writers. (Paus. ii. 37. 5, seq. ; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 473.) ALCYO'NIUM MARE. [CORINTHIAOUS SI- NUS.] A'LEA ('AAeo: Eth. 'AAeos, 'AAeaTTjs), a town of Arcadia, between Orchomenus and Stymphalus, contained, in the time of Pausanias, temples of the Ephesian Artemis, of Athena Alea, and of Dionysus. It appears to have been situated in the territory either of Stymphalus or Orchomenus. Pausanias (viii. 27. 3) calls Alea a town of the Maenalians ; but we ought probably to read Asea in this passage, instead of Alea. The ruins of Alea have been dis- j covered by the French Commission in the middle of | the dark valley of Skotini, about a mile to the NE. of the village of Buydti. Alea was never a town of importance ; but some modern writers have, though inadvertently, placed at this town the cele- brated temple of Athena Alea, which was situated at Tegea. [TEGEA.] (Paus. viii. 23. 1 ; Steph. B. s.v.; Boblaye, Recherches, $c., p. 147; Leake, Peloponnesiaca, p. 383.) ALEMANNI. [GKKMANIA.] ALE'RIA or ALA'LIA Q'AAaAfy, Herod.; 'AA- AaAia, Steph. B. ; 'AAepi'a, Ptol. : 'AAAaAicuos, Steph. B.), one of the chief cities of Corsica, situated on the E. coast of the island, near the mouth of the river Rhotanus (Tavignano'). It was originally a Greek colony, founded about B. C. 564, by the Pho- caeans of Ionia. Twenty years later, when the parent city was captured by Harpagus, a large por- tion of its inhabitants repaired to then* colony of Alalia, where they dwelt for five years, but their piratical conduct involved them in hostilities with the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians ; and in a great sea-fight with the combined fleets of these two nations they suffered such heavy loss, as induced them to abandon the island, and repair to the S. of Italy, where they ultimately established themselves at Velia in Lucania. (Herod, i. 165 167; Steph. B.; Diod. v. 13, where KaAapts is evidently a cor- rupt reading for 'AAa/n'a.) No further mention is found of the Greek colony, but the city appears again, under the Roman form of the name, Aleria, during the first Punic war, when it was captured by the Roman fleet under L. Scipio, in B. c. 259, an event which led to the submission of the whole island, and was deemed worthy to be expressly mentioned in his epitaph. (Zonar. viii. 1 1 ; Flor. ii. 2 ; Orell. Inscr. no. 552.) It subsequently received a Roman colony under the dictator Sulla, and appears to have retained its colonial rank, and continued to be one of the chief cities of Corsica under the Roman Em- pire. (Plin. iii. 6. s. 12; Mela, ii. 7; Diod. v. 13; Seneca, Cons, ad Helv. 8 ; Ptol. iii. 2. 5 ; Itin. Ant. p. 85.) Its ruins are still visible near the south bank of the river Tavignano : they are now above half a ALESIA. mile from the coast, though it was in the Roman times a seaport. [E. H. B.] ALE'SIA (Alise\ a town of the Mandubii, who were neighbours of the Aedui. The name is some- times written Alcxia (Floras, iii. 10, note, ed. Duker, and elsewhere). Tradition made it a very old town, fnr the story was that it was founded by Hercules on his return from Iberia; and the Celtae were said to venerate it as the hearth (4) and Uxentum (Ugento), though the distances given are inaccurate. In Strabo, also, it is probable that we should read with Kramer 'AATjn'a for 2a- ATjTri'a, which he describes as a town in the interior of Calabria, a short distance from the sea. (Strab. p. 282 ; and Kramer, ad /oc.) [E. H. B.] ALEXANDREIA, -IA or -EA (TJ 'AAe|az/5pe. 69 (Orat. xxxii.), nt'" Italians, Syrians, Libyans, Cilicians, Aethiopians, Arabians, Bactrians, Persians, Scythians, and In- dians ;" and Polybius (xxxix. 14) and Strabo (p. 797) confirm his statement. Ancient writers generally give the Alexandrians an ill name, as a double-tongued (Hirtius, B. Alex. 24), factious (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyran. c. 22), irascible (Phil. adv. Flacc. ii. p. 519), blood-thirsty, yet cowardly (Dion Cass. i. p. 621). Athenaeus speaks of m as a jovial, boisterous race (x. p. 420), and mentions their passion for music and the number and strange appellations of their musical instruments (id. iv. 176, xiv. p. 654). Dion Chrysostom (Orat. xxxii.) upbraids them with their levity, their insane love of spectacles, horse races, gambling, and dissi- pation. They were, however, singularly industrious. Besides their export trade, the city was full of manu- factories of paper, linen, glass, and muslin (Vopisc. Saturn. 8). Even the lame and blind had their occupations. For their rulers, Greek or Roman, they invented nicknames. The better Ptolemies and Cae- sars smiled at these affronts, while Physcon and Caracalla repaid them by a general massacre. For more particular information respecting Alexandreia we refer to Matter, TEcole d'Alexandrie, 2 vols. ; the article " Alexandrinische Schule " in Pauly's Real Encyclopaedic ; and to Mr. Sharpe's History of Egypt, 2nd ed. The Government of Alexandreia. Under the Ptolemies the Alexandrians possessed at least the semblance of a constitution. Its Greek inhabitants enjoyed the privileges of bearing arms, of meeting in the Gymnasium to discuss their general interests, and to petition for redress of grievances; and they were addressed in royal proclamations as " Men of Macedon." But they had no political constitution able to resist the grasp of despotism ; and, after the reigns of the first three kings of the Lagid house, were deprived of even the shadow of freedom. To this end the division of the city into three nations directly contributed ; for the Greeks were ever ready to take up arms against the Jews, and the Egyp- tians feared and contemned them both. A connu- bium, indeed, existed between the latter and the Greeks. (Letronne, Inscr. i. p. 99.) Of the govern- ment of the Jews by an Ethnarch and a Sanhedrim we have already spoken : how the quarter Rhacotis was administered we do not know; it was probably under a priesthood of its own : but we find in in- scriptions and in other scattered notices that the Greek population was divided into tribes ((pvAat), and into wards (STJ/XOI). The tribes were nine in number ('A\0cus, 'ApiaSm, Arjiaveipis, Aioi/ucn's, Ewef?, etrrfs, Qoavris, Mapcavis, 2Ta$i/Aiy). (Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina, p. 346, seq. Berl. 1843.) There was, indeed, some variation in the appellations of the tribes, since Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the Argonaittica, belonged to a tribe ALEXANDREIA. 99 called UroXfuais. ( Vit. Apoll. Rhod. ed. Brunk.) The senate was elected from the principal members of the wards (Arftudra<). Its functions were chiefly judicial. In inscriptions we meet with the titles SiKcuoSJTjjy, vTrofjLVT]/j.a.T6ypa.(f)os, , ayopdvo/jios , &c. (Letronne, Recueil des Inscr. Gr. et Lat. de lEgypte, vol. i. 1842, Paris; id. Recherches pour servir a THistoire de tEgypte, &c. Paris, 1823 8.) From the reign of Augustus, B. c. 31, to that of Septimius Seve- rus, A. D. 194, the functions of the senate were suspended, and their place supplied by the Roman Juridicus, or Chief Justice, whose authority was inferior only to that of the Praefectus Augmtalis. (Winkler, de Jurid. Alex. Lips. 18278.) The latter emperor restored the "jus buleutarum." (Spartian. Severus, c. 17.) The Roman government of Alexandreia was alto- gether peculiar. The country was assigned neither to the senatorian nor the imperial provinces, but was made dependent on the Caesar alone. For this regulation there were valid reasons. The Nile- valley was not easy of access ; might be easily de- fended by an ambitious prefect; was opulent and populous ; and was one of the principal granaries of Rome. Hence Augustus interdicted the senatorian order, and even the more illustrious equites (Tac. Ann. ii. 59) from visiting Egypt without special licence. The prefect he selected, and his successors observed the rule, either from his personal adherents, or from equites who looked to him alone for pro- motion. Under the prefect, but nominated by the emperor, was the Juridicus (ctpx t ^" fC * " T7 ? s )i wno presided over a numerous staff of inferior magis- trates, and whose decisions could be annulled by the prefect, or perhaps the emperor alone. The Caesar appointed also the keeper of the public records (viro(j.vrnj.ar6ypav ^i an d the President of the Mu- seum. All these officers, as Caesarian nominees, wore a scarlet-bordered robe. (Strab. p. 797, seq.) In other respects the domination of Rome was highly conducive to the welfare of Alexandreia. Trade, which had declined under the later Ptolemies, revived and attained a prosperity hitherto unex- ampled : the army, instead of being a horde of lawless and oppressive mercenaries, was restrained under strict discipline : the privileges and national customs of the three constituents of its population were re- spected: the luxury of Rome gave new vigour to commerce with the East ; the corn-supply to Italy promoted the cultivation of the Delta and the busi- ness of the Emporium; and the frequent inscription of the imperial names upon the temples attested that Alexandreia at least had benefited by exchanging the Ptolemies for the Caesars. The History of Alexandreia may be divided into three periods.- (1) The Hellenic. (2) The Roman. (3) The Christian. The details of the first of these may be read in the History of the Ptolemies (Diet, of Biogr. vol. iii. pp. 565 599). Here it will suffice to remark, that the city pros- pered under the wisdom of Soter and the genius of Philadelphus ; lost somewhat of its Hellenic cha- racter under Euergetes, and began to decline under Philopator, who was a mere Eastern despot, sur- rounded and governed by women, eunuchs, and fa- vourites. From Epiphanes downwards these evils H 2 100 ALEXANDREIA were aggravated. The army was disorganised; trade ' and agriculture declined; the Alexandrian people ' grew more servile and vicious: even the Museum exhibited symptoms of decrepitude. Its professors continued, indeed, to cultivate science and criticism, but invention and taste had expired. It depended upon Rome whether Alexandreia should become tributary to Antioch, or receive a proconsul from the senate. The wars of Rome with Carthage, Macedon, and Syria alone deferred the deposition of the La- gidae. The influence of Rome in the Ptolemaic kingdom commenced pi-operly in B. c. 204, when the guardians of Epiphanes placed their infant ward under the protection of the senate, as his only refuge against the designs of the Macedonian and Syrian monarchs. (Justin, xxx. 2.) M. Aemilius Lepidus was appointed guardian to the young Ptolemy, and the legend " Tutor Regis " upon the Aemilian coins commemorates this trust. (Eckhel, vol. v. p. 123.) In B.C. 163 the Romans adjudicated between the brothers Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes. The latter received Gyrene; the former retained Alex- andreia and Egypt. In B. c. 145, Scipio Africanus the younger was appointed to settle the distractions which ensued upon the murder of Eupator. (Justin, xxxviii. 8; Cic. Acad. Q. iv. 2, Of. iii. 2; Diod. Legat. 32; Gell. N. A. xviii. 9.) An inscription, of about this date, recorded at Delos the existence of amity between Alexandreia and Rome. (Letronne, Inscr. vol.i. p. 102.) In B.C. 97, Ptolemy Apion de- vised by will the province of Gyrene to the Roman se- nate (Liv. Ixx. Epit.^), and his example was followed, in B. c. 80, by Ptolemy Alexander, who bequeathed to them Alexandreia and his kingdom. The bequest, however, was not immediately enforced, as the re- public was occupied with civil convulsions at home. Twenty years later Ptolemy Auletes mortgaged his revenues to a wealthy Roman senator, Rabirius Pos- tumus (Cic. Fragm. xvii. Orelli, p. 458), and in B. c. 55 Alexandreia was drawn into the immediate vortex of the Roman revolution, and from this period, until its submission to Augustus in B. c. 30, it fol- lowed the fortunes alternately of Pompey, Gabinius, Caesar, Cassius the liberator, and M. Antonius. The wealth of Alexandreia in the last century B.C. may be inferred from the fact, that, in B.C. 63, 6250 talents, or a million sterling, were paid to the trea- sury as port dues alone. (Diod. xvii. 52; Strab. p. 832.) Under the emperors, the history of Alex- andreia exhibits little variety. It was, upon the whole, leniently governed, for Jt was the interest of the Caesars to be generally popular in a city which commanded one of the granaries of Rome. Augustus, indeed, marked his displeasure at the support given to M. Antonius, by building Nicopolis about three miles to the east of the Canobic gate as its rival, and by depriving the Greeks of Alexandreia of the only political distinction which the Ptolemies had left them the judicial functions of the senate. The city, however, shared in the general prosperity of Egypt under Roman rule. The portion of its population that came most frequently in collision with the executive was that of the Jewish Quarter. Some- times emperors, like Caligula, demanded that the imperial effigies or military standards should be set up in their temple, at others the Greeks ridi- culed or outraged the Hebrew ceremonies. Both these causes were attended with sanguinary results, and even with general pillage and burning of the city. Alexandreia was favoured by Claudius, who added a wing to the Museum; was threatened with ALEXANDREIA. a visit from Nero, who coveted the skilful applause of its claqueurs in the theatre (Sueton. Ner. 20); as the head-quarter, for some months, of Vespasian (Tac. Hist. iii. 48, iv. 82) during the civil wars which preceded his accession; was subjected to mili- tary lawlessness under Domitian (Juv. Sat. xvi.); was governed mildly by Trajan, who even supplied the city, during a dearth, with corn (Plin. Panegyr. 31. 23); and was visited by Hadrian in A. r>. 122, who has left a graphic picture of the population. (Vopisc. Saturn. 8.) The first important change in their polity was that introduced by the emperor Severus in A. n. 196. The Alexandrian Greeks were no longer formidable, and Severus accordingly restored their senate and municipal government. He also ornamented the city with a temple of Rhea, and with a public bath Thermae Septimianae. Alexandreia, however, suffered more from a single visit of Caracalla than from the tyranny or caprice of any of his predecessors. That emperor had been ridiculed by its satirical populace for affecting to be the Achilles and Alexander of his time. The ru- mours or caricatures which reached him in Italy were not forgotten on his tour through the provinces ; and although he was greeted with hecatombs on his arri- val at Alexandreia in A. D. 211 (Herodian. iv. 9), he did not omit to repay the insult by a general mas- sacre of the youth of military age. (Dion Cass. Ixxvii. 22 ; Spartian. Caracall. 6.) Caracalla also introduced some important changes in the civil rela- tions of the Alexandrians. To mark his displeasure with the Greeks, he admitted the chief men of the quarter Rhacotis i. e. native Egyptians into the Roman senate (Dion Cass. li. 17; Spartian. Caracall. 9); he patronised a temple of Isis at Rome ; and he punished the citizens of the Brucheium by retrenching their public games and their allow- ance of corn. The Greek quarter was charged with the maintenance of an additional Roman garrison, and its inner walls were repaired and lined with forts. From the works of Aretaeus (de Morb. Acut. i.) we learn that Alexandreia was visited by a pes- tilence in the reign of Gallus, A. D. 253. In 265, the prefect Aemilianus was proclaimed Caesar by his soldiers. (Trebell. Pol. Trig. Tyrann. 22, Gallien. 4.) In 270, the name of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, appears on the Alexandrian coinage; and the city had its full share of the evils con- sequent upon the frequent revolutions of the Ro- man empire. (Vopisc. Aurelian. 32.) After this period, A. D. 271, Alexandreia lost much of its pre- dominance in Egypt, since the native population, hardened by repeated wars, and reinforced by Ara- bian immigrants, had become a martial and turbulent race. In A. D. 297 (Eutrop. ix. 22), Diocletian be- sieged and regained Alexandreia, which had declared itself iu favour of the usurper Achilleus. The em- peror, however, made a lenient use of his victoiy, and purchased the favour of the populace by an increased largess of corn. The column, now well known as Pompey's Pillar, once supported a statue of this emperor, and still bears on its base the in- scription, " To the most honoured emperor, the de- liverer of Alexandreia, the invincible Diocletian." Alexandreia had its full share of the persecutions of this reign. The Jewish rabbinism and Greek philosophy of the city had paved the way for Chris- tianity, and the serious temper of the Egyptian population sympathised with the earnestness of the new faith. The Christian population of Alexan- ,. ALEXAXDREIA. ALEXANDKKIA. 101 it is Athana Mcesn con ^ tail batl. who la was accordingly nmnonms when the imperial edicts were put in force. Nor were martyrs wanting. The city was already an episcopal see; and its bishop Peter, with the presbyters Faustus, Dius, and Am- monias, were am-nig the iirst victims of Diocletian's rescript. The Christian annals of Alexandria have so little that is peculiar to the city, that it will suffice to refer the reader to the general history of the Church. It is more interesting to turn from the Arian and .lanasian feuds, which sometimes deluged tin- ts of the city with blood, and sometimes made ry the intervention of the Prefect, to the aspect which Alexandreia presented to the Arabs, in A. D. 640, after so many revolutions, civil and re- ligious. The Pharos and Heptastadium were still uninjured: the Sebaste or Caesarium, the Soma, and the (Quarter Khacotis, retained almost their original grandeur. But the Hippodrome at the Canobic Gate was a ruin, and a new Museum had replaced in the Egyptian Region the more ample structure of the Ptolemies in the Brucheium. The Greek quar- ter was indeed nearly deserted : the Regio Judaeorum was occupied by a few miserable tenants, who pur- chased from the Alexandrian patriarch the right to follow their national law. The Serapeion had been converted into a Cathedral; and some of the more conspicuous buildings of the Hellenic city had be- me the Christian Churches of St. Mark, St. John, .Marv, &c. Yet Amrou reported to his master Khalif Omar that Alexandreia was a city con- taining four thousand palaces, four thousand public : mr hundred theatres, forty thousand Jews rho paid tribute, and twelve thousand persons who herbs. (Eutych. Annal. A. D. 640.) The ult of Arabian desolation was, that the city, which had dwindled into the Egyptian Quarter, shrunk into the limits of the Heptastadium, and, after the year 1497, when the Portuguese, by discovering the round the Cape of Good Hope, changed the whole current of Indian trade, it degenerated still further into an obscure town, with a population of about 6000, inferior probably to that of the original is. Ruins of Alexandreia. These may be divided into two classes: (1) indistinguishable mounds of masonry; and (2) fragments of buildings which may, in some degree, be identified with ancient sites or structures. " The Old Town" is surrounded by a double wall, with lofty towers, and five gates. The Rosetta Gate is the eastern entrance into this circuit; but it does not correspond with the old Canobic Gate, which was half a mile further to the east. The space in- closed is about 10,000 feet in length, and in its breadth varies from 3200 to 1600 feet. It contains generally shapeless masses of ruins, consisting of shattered columns and capitals, cisterns choked with rubbish, and fragments of pottery and glass. Some of the mounds are covered by the villas and gardens of the wealthier inhabitants of Alexandreia. Nearly in the centre of the inclosure, and probably in the High Street between the Canobic and Necropolitan Gates, gtood a few years since three granite columns. They were nearly opposite the Mosque of St. Athanasius, and were perhaps the last remnants of the colonnade which lined the High Street. (From this mosque was taken, in 1801, the sarcophagus of green breccia which is now in the British Museum.) Until December, 1841, there was also on the road leading to the Rosetta Gate the base of another about t Khacot Rm> similar commn. But these, as well as other rem- nants of the capital of the Ptolemies, have disap- peared; although, twenty years ago, the intersection of its two main streets was distinctly visible, at a point near the Frank Square, and not very far from the Catholic convent. Excavations in the Old Town occasionally, indeed, bring to light parts of statues, large columns, and fragments of masonry: but the ground-plan of Alexandreia is now pro- bably lost irretrievably, as the ruins have been con- verted into building materials, without note being taken at the time of the site or character of the remnants removed. Vestiges of baths and other buildings may be traced along the inner and outer bay; and numerous tanks are still in use which fonned part of the cisterns that supplied the city with Nile-water. They were often of considerable si/e; were built under the houses; and, being arched and coated with a thick red plaster^ have in many cases remained perfect to this day. One set of these reservoirs runs parallel to the eastern issue of the Mahmoodeh Canal, which nearly represents the old Canobic Canal; others are found in the convents which occupy part of the site of the Old Town; and others again are met with below the mound of Pompey's Pillar. The descent into these chambers is either by steps in the side or by an opening in the roof, through which the water is drawn up by ropes and buckets. The most striking remains of ancient Alexandreia are the Obelisks and Pompey's Pillar. The former are universally known by the inappropriate name of " Cleopatra's Needles." The fame of Cleopatra has preserved her memory among the illiterate Arabs, who regard her as a kind of enchantress, and ascribe to her many of the great works of her capital, the Pharos and Heptastadium included. Meselleh is, moreover, the Arabic word for " a packing Needle," and is given generally to obelisks. The two columns, however, which bear this appellation, are red granite obelisks which were brought by one of the Caesars from Heliopolis, and, according to Pliny (xxxvi. 9), were set up in front of the Sebaste or Caesarium. They are about 57 paces apart from each other: one is still vertical, the other has been thrown down. They stood each on two steps of white limestone. The vertical obelisk is 73 feet high, the diameter at its base is 7 feet and 7 inches; the fallen obelisk has been mutilated, and, with the same diameter, is shorter. The latter was presented by Mohammed Ali to the English government : and the propriety of its removal to England has been discussed during the present year. Pliny (1. c.) ascribes them to an Egyptian king named Mesphres: nor is he altogether wrong. The Pharaoh whose oval they exhibit was the third Thothmes, and in Manetho's list the first and second Thothmes( 18th Dynasty: Kenrick, vol.ii. p. 199) are written as Mesphra-Thothmosis. Ra- meses III. and Osirei II., his third successor, have also their ovals upon these obelisks. Pompey's Pillar, as it is erroneously termed, is de- nominated by the Arabs Amood esowari; sari or so- wari being applied by them to any lofty monument which suggests the image of a " mast." It might more properly le termed Diocletian's Pillar, since a statue of that emperor once occupied its summit, com- memorating the capture of Alexandreia in A. D. 237, after an obstinate siege of eight months. The t >tal height of this column is 98 feet 9 inches, the shaft is 73 feet, the circumference 29 feet 8 inches, and the diameter at the top of the capital is 16 feet 6 H 3 102 ALEXANDREIA. inches. The shaft, capital, and pedestal are ap- parently of different ages ; the latter are of very in- ferior workmanship to the shaft. The substructions of the column are fragments of older monuments, and the name of Psammetichus with a few hieroglyphics is inscribed upon them. The origin of the name Pompey's Pillar is very doubtful. It has been derived from Tlo/jLiraios, " con- ducting," since the column served for a land-mark. In the inscription copied by Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Mr. Salt, it is stated that " Publius, the Eparch of Egypt," erected it in honour of Diocletian. For Publius it has been proposed to read " Pompeius." The Pillar originally stood in the centre of a paved area beneath the level of the ground, like so many of the later Roman memorial columns. The pave- ment, however, has long been broken up and carried away. If Arabian traditions may be trusted, this now solitary Pillar once stood in a Stoa with 400 others, and formed part of the peristyle of the an- cient Serapeion. Next in interest are the Catacombs or remains of the ancient Necropolis beyond the Western Gate. The approach to this cemetery was through vineyards and gardens, which both Athenaeus and Strabo cele- brate. The extent of the Catacombs is remarkable : they are cut partly in a ridge of sandy calcareous ptone, and partly in the calcareous rock that faces the sea. They all communicate with the sea by narrow vaults, and the most spacious of them is about 3830 yds. SW. of Pompey's Pillar. Their style of decoration is purely Greek, and in one of the chambers are a Doric entablature and mould- ings, which evince no decline in art at the period of their erection. Several tombs in that direction, at the water's edge, and some even below its level, are entitled " Bagni di Cleopatra."" A more particular account of the Ruins of Alex- andreia will be found in Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Topography of Thebes, p. 380, seq., and his Hand- Book for Travellers inEgypt, pp. 7 1 100, Murray, 1847. Besides the references already given for Alexandreia, its topography and history, the follow- ing writers may be consulted: Strab. p. 791, seq ; Ptol. iv. 5. 9, vii. 5. 13, 14, &c. &c.; Diod. xvii. 52; Pausan. v. 21, viii. 33; Arrian, Exp. Akx. iii. 1. 5, seq.; Q. Curtius, iv. 8. 2, x. 10. 20; Plut. Alex. 26; Mela, i. 9. 9; Plin. v. 10, 11; Amm. Marc. xxii. 16; It. Anton, pp. 57, 70; Joseph. B. J. ii. 28 ; Polyb. xxxix. 14 ; Caesar, B. C. iii. 112. [W. B. D.] ALEXANDREIA (r> VUu^&peia). Besides the celebrated Alexandreia mentioned above, there were several other towns of this name, founded by Alex- ander or his successors. 1. In ARACHOSIA, also called Alexandropolis, on the river Arachotus; its site is unknown. (Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.) 2. In ARIANA (?) eV 'Apuns, or Alexandreia Arion as Pliny, vi. 17, names it), the chief city of the country, now Herat, the capital of Khorassan, a town which has a considerable trade. The tradition is that Alexander the Great founded this Alexandreia, but like others of the name it was probably only so called in honour of him. (Strab. pp. 514, 516, 723; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.) 3. In BACTRIANA, a town in Bactriana, near Bactra (Steph. Byz.). 4. In CARMANIA, the capital of the country, now Kerman. (Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.) 5. AD ISSUM (TI Kar' "Iffarov : Alexandreum, ALEXANDREIA. Iskcrukrun). a town on the east side of the Gulf of Issus, and probably on or close to the site of the Myriandrus of Xenophon (Anab. i. 4), and Arriau (Anab. ii. 6). It seems probable that the place re- ceived a new name in honour of Alexander. Ste- phanus mentions both Myriandrus and Alexandreia of Cilicia, by which he means this place ; but this does not prove that there were two towns in his time. Both Stephanus and Strabo (p. 676) place this Alex- andreia in Cilicia [ AMANUS] . A place called Jacob's Well, in the neighbourhood of Iskenderun, has been supposed to be the site of Myriandrus (London Geoff. Journ. vol. vii. p. 414); but no proof is given of this assertion. Iskenderun is about 6 miles SSW. of the Pylae Ciliciae direct distance. [AaiANus.] The place is unhealthy in summer, and contained only sixty or seventy mean houses when Niebuhr visited it; but in recent times it is said to have improved. (Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung, vol. iii. p. 19 ; London Geog. Journ. vol. x. p. 511.) i 6. OxiANA. [SOGDIANA.] 7. In PAROPAMISUS. [PAROPAMISADAE.] 8. TROAS ('A.\edv8peia T) Tpwas), sometimes called simply Alexandreia, and sometimes Troas(Acts Apost. xvi. 8), now Eski Stambul or Old Stambul, was situated on the coast of Troas, opposite to the south-eastern point of the island of Tenedos, and north of Assus. It was founded by Antigonus, one of the most able of Alexander's successors, under the name of Antigoneia Troas, and peopled with settlers from Scepsis and other neighbouring towns. It was unproved by Lysimachus king of Thrace, and named Alexandreia Troas; but both names, Antigoneia, and Alexandreia, appear on some coins. It was a flou- rishing place under the Roman empire, and had re- ceived a Roman colony when Strabo wrote (p. 593), which was sent in the time of Augustus, as the name COL. Avo. TROAS on a coin shows. In the time of Hadrian an aqueduct several miles in length was constructed, partly at the expense of Herodes Atticus, to bring water to the city from Ida. Many of the supports of the aqueduct still remain, but all the arches are broken. The ruins of this city cover a large surface. Chandler says that the walls, the largest part of which remain, are several miles in circumference. The remains of the Thermae or baths are very considerable, and doubtless belong to the Roman period. There is little marble on the site of the city, for the materials have been carried off to build houses and public edifices at Constanti- nople. The place is now nearly deserted. There is a story, perhaps not worth much, that the dictator Caesar thought of transferring the seat of empire to this Alexandreia or to Ilium (Suet. Goes. 79); and some writers have conjectured that Au- gustus had a like design, as may be inferred from the words of Horace (Carm. iii. 3. 37, &c.). It may be true that Constantine thought of Alexandreia (Zosim. ii. 30) for his new capital, but in the end he made a better selection. 9. ULTIMA ('AAe|di'?peto eVxorrj, or 'A\eaf- SpeVxaro, Appian, Syr. 57), a city founded among the Scythians, according to Appian. It was founded by Alexander upon the Jaxartes, which the Greeks called the Tanais, as a bulwark against the easteni barbarians . The colonists were Hellenic mercenaries, Macedonians who were past service, and some of the adjacent barbarians : the city was 60 stadia in circuit. (Arrian, Anab. iv. 1. 3; Curtius, vii. 6.) There is no evidence to determine the exact site, which may be that of Khodjend, as some suppose. [G. L.] ALEXANDKI AKAE. ALEXAND1U ARAE or COLUMNAE (ol i 'AA6cif5pou /3a>/nof). It was a well-known custom 'f the ancient conquerors from Sesostris downwards to mark their progress, and especially its furthest limits, by monuments; and thus, in Central Asia, | near the rim Jaxartes (Sihoun), there were shown altars of Hercules and Bacchus, Cyrus, Semiramis ' ;md Alexander. (Hiii. vi. 16. s. 18; Solin. 49.) I J'liny adds that Alexander's soldiers supposed the | .Jaxartes to be the Tanais, and Ptolemy (iii. 5. 26) \ actually places altars of Alexander on the true j TanaYs (Don), which Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 8), carrying the confusion a step further, transfers to the Borysthenes. (Ukert, vol. iii. pt. 2, pp. 38, 40, 71, 191, 196.) Respecting Alexander's altars in India, see HYPHASIS. [P. S.] A'LGIDUS ("AA7i8os), a mountain of Latiiun, forming part of the volcanic group of the Alban Hills, though detached from the central summit, the Mons Albanus or Monte Cavo, and separated, as well from that as from the Tusculan hills, by an elevated valley of considerable breadth. The extent in which the name was applied is not certain, but it Tins to have been a general appellation for the north-eastern portion of the Alban group, rather than that of a particular mountain Mimmit. It is cele- brated by Horace for its black woods of holm-oaks ( Hiyrae J trad frond is in Alytdo), and for its cold and snowy climate (itii-ali Alyido, Carm. i. 21. 6, iii. 23. 9,*iv. 4. 58): but its lower slopes became afterwards much frequented by the Roman nobles as a place of summer retirement, whence Silius Itali- cus gives it the epithet of ainoena Algida (Sil. Ital. xii. 536; Martial, x. 30. 6). It has now very much resumed its ancient aspect, and is covered with .'.-use forests, which are frequently the haunts of banditti. At an earlier period it plays an important part in the history of Rome, being the theatre of numberless conflicts between the Romans and Aequians. It is not clear whether it was as supposed by Dionysius (x. 21), who is followed by Niebuhr (vol. ii. p. 258) ever included in the proper territories of the Aequians : the expressions of Livy would certainly l"ad to a contrary conclusion: but it was continually occupied by them as an advanced post, which at once secured their own communications with the Volscians, and intercepted those of the Romans and Latins with their allies the Hernicans. The elevated plain which separated it from the Tusculan hills thus became their habitual field of battle. (Liv. iii. 2, 23, 25, &c.; Dion. Hal. x. 21, xi. 3, 23, &c.; Ovid, Fast. vi. 721.) Of the exploits of which it was the scene, the most celebrated are the victory of Cincin- natus over the Aequians under Cloelius Gracchus, in B. c. 458, and that of Postumius Tubertus, in B. c. 428, over the combined forces of the Aequians and Volscians. The last occasion on which we find the former people encamping on Mt. Algidus, was in B.C. 415. In several passages Dionysius speaks of a town named Algidus, but Livy nowhere alludes to the existence of such a place, nor does his narrative admit of the supposition: and it is probable that Dionysius has mistaken the language of the an- nalists, and rendered " in Algido " by lv ir6\ei 'AA- yi5 v . (I)ionys. x. 21, xi. 3; Strph. B. s. v. "A\yi- 8os, probably copies Dionysius.) In Strabo's time, however, it is certain that there was a small town (7roAt'x"iof) of the name (Strab. p. 237): but if we can construe his words strictly, this, must have ALISO. 103 been lower down, on the southern slope of the lull; and was probably a growth of later times. It was situated on the Via Latina; and the gorge or narrow pass through which that road emerged from the hills is still called la Cava dell' Aglio, the latter word being evidently a corruption of Algidus. (Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 123.) We lind mention in very early times of a temple of Fortune on Mt. Algidus (Liv. xxi. G2), and we learn also that the mountain itself was sacred to Diana, \\lio ap]>ears to have had there a temple of ancient celebrity. (Ilor. Carm. Saec. 69.) Exist- ing remains on the summit of one of the peaks of the ridge are referred, with much probability, to this temple, which appears to have stood on an elevated platform, supported by terraces and walls of a very massive construction, giving to the whole much of the character of a fortress, in the same manner as in the case of the Capitol at Rome. These remains which are not easy of access, on account of the drn.se woods \\ith which they are surrounded, and hence api5a : Eth. 'AAtJ/Sevs), a city of Caria, which was surrendered to Alexander by Ada, queen of Caria. It was one of the strongest places in Caria (Arrian. Anab. i. 23; Strab. p. 657). Its position seems to be properly fixed by Fellows (Dis- coveries in Lycia, p. 58) at Demmeergee-derasy, between Arab Hissa and Karpuslee, on a steep rock. He found no inscriptions, but out of twenty copper coins obtained here five had the epigraph Alinda. [G. L.] ALIPHE'RA ('AAi'^rjpa, Pans.; Aliphera, Liv. ; "AAi^etpa, Polyb. : Eth. 'AAt^rjpeus, ' A.\ionnes, vol. i. p. 102; Curtius, Peloponnesos, vol. i. p. 361, seq.) ALI'SO or ALI'SUM (E\iffrot> : per- haps Elsen, near Paderborn), a strong fortress in Germany, built by Drusus in B. c. 11, for the pur- pose of fcecuring the advantages which had been gained, and to have a safe place in which the Romaic 104 ALIUM. might m. '--.fain themselves against the Cherusci and Sigambri. It was situated at the point where the Eliso empties itself into the Lupia (Lippe, Dion Cass. liv. 33.) There can be no doubt that the place thus described by Dion Cassius under the name 'EAurcoj/, is the same as the Aliso mentioned by Velleius (ii. 120) and Tacitus (Ann. ii. 7), and which in A. D. 9, after the defeat of Varus, was taken by the Germans. In A. D. 15 it was reconquered by the Romans; but being, the year after, besieged by the Germans, it was relieved by Germanicus. So long as the Eomans were involved in wars with the Germans hi their own country, Aliso was a place of the highest importance, and a military road with strong fortifications kept up the connection between Aliso and the Rhine. The name of the place was probably taken from the little river Eliso, on whose bank it stood. r Yhe"A\eurov (in Ptolemy ii. 11) is probably only another form of the name of this fortress. Much has been written in modern times upon the site of the ancient Aliso, and different results have been arrived at ; but from the accurate description of Dion Cassius, there can be little doubt that the vil- lage of Elsen, about two miles from Paderborn, situ- ated at the confluence of the Aline, (Eliso) and Lippe (Lupia), is the site of the ancient Aliso. (Ledebur, Das Land u. Volk der JBructerer, p. 209, foil.; W. E. Giefers, De Alisone Castello Commentatio, Crefeld, 1844, 8vo.) [L. S.] A'LIUM. [ACBOREIA.] ALLA'RIA('AAAa/3i'a : Eth. 'A\Aapiorr?s),acity of Crete of uncertain site, of which coins are extant, bearing on the obverse the head of Pallas, and on the reverse a figure of Heracles standing. (Polyb. ap. Steph. B. s. 0. COIN OF ALLARIA. A'LLIA or A'LIA* (6 'AAi'as, Pint.) a small river which flows into the Tiber, on its left bank, about 11 miles N. of Rome. It was on its banks that the Romans sustained the memorable defeat by the Gauls under Brennus in B. c. 390, which led to the capture and destruction of the city by the bar- barians. On this account the day on which the battle was fought, the 16th of July (xv. Kal. Sex- tiles), called the Dies Alliensis, was ever after re- garded as disastrous, and it was forbidden to trans- act any public business on it. (Liv. vi. 1, 28; Virg. Aen. vii. 717 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 91 ; Varr. de L.L. vi. 32; Lucan. vii. 408 ; Cic. Ep. ad Att. ix. 5; Kal. Amitem. ap. Orell. Inscr. vol. ii. p. 394.) A few years later, B.C. 377, the Praenestines and their allies, during a war with Rome, took up a position on the Allia, trusting that it would prove of evil omen to their adversaries; but their hopes * According to Niebuhr (vol. ii. p. 533, not.) the correct form is ALIA, but the ordinary form ALTJA is supported by many good MSS., arid retained j by the most recent editor of Livy. The note of I Servius (ad Aen. vii. 717) is certainly founded on a misconception. ALLLA. were deceived, and they were totally defeated by the dictator Cincinnatus. (Liv. vi. 28 ; Eutrop. ii. 2.) The situation of this celebrated, but insignifi- cant, stream is marked with unusual precision by Livy: " Aegre (hostibus) ad undecimum lapidem occursum est, qua flumen Allia Crustuminis monti- bus praealto defluens alveo, haud multum infra viam Tiberino amni miscetur." (v. 37.) The Gauls were advancing upon Rome by the left bank of the Tiber, so that there can be no doubt that the " via " here mentioned is the Via Salaria, and the correctness of the distance is confirmed by Plutarch (Cams?/. 18), who reckons it at 90 stadia, and by Eutropius (i. 20), while Vibius Sequester, who places it at 14 miles from Rome (p. 3), is an authority of no value on such a point. Notwithstanding this accurate de- scription, the identification of the river designated has been the subject of much doubt and discussion, principally arising from the circumstance that there is no stream which actually crosses the Via Salaria at the required distance from Rome. Indeed the only two streams w r hich can in any degree deserve the title of rivers, that flow into this part of the Tiber, are the Rio del Mosso, which crosses the modern road at the Osteria del Grillo about 18 miles from Rome, and the Fosso di Conca, which rises at a place called Conca (near the site of Ficulea), about 13 miles from Rome, but flows in a southerly direction and crosses the Via Salaria at Malpasso, not quite 7 miles from the city. The former of these, though supposed by Cluverius to be the Allia, is not only much too distant from Rome, but does not correspond with the description of Livy, as it flows through a nearly flat country, and its banks are low and defenceless. The Fosso di Conca on the contrary is too near to Rome, where it crosses the road and enters the Tiber; on which account Nibby and Gell have supposed the battle to have been fought higher up its course, above Torre di S. Giovanni. But the expressions of Livy above cited and his whole narrative clearly prove that he conceived the battle to have been fought close to the Tiber, so that the Romans rested their left wing on that river, and their right on the Crustumian hills, protected by the reserve force which was posted on one of those hills, and against which Brennus directed his first attack. Both these two rivers must therefore be rejected ; but between them are two smaller streams which, though little more than ditches in appearance, flow through deep and narrow ravines, where they issue from the hills; the first of these, which rises not far from the Fosso di Conca, crosses the road about a mile beyond La Marcigliana, and rather more than 9 from Rome; the second, called the Scolo del Casale, about 3 miles further on, at a spot named the Fonte di Papa, which is just more than 12 miles from Rome. The choice must lie between these two, of which the former has been adopted by Holstenius and Westphal, but the latter has on the whole the best claim to be regarded as the true Allia. It coincides in all respects with Livy's description, except that the distance is a mile too great ; but the difference in the other case is greater, and the cor- respondence in no other respect more satisfactory. If it be objected that the little brook at Fonte di Papa is too trifling a stream to have earned such an immortal name, it may be observed that the very particular manner in which Livy describes the locality, sufficiently shows that it was not one necessarily familiar to his readers, nor does any ALL1FAE mention of the river A Ilia occur at a later period of Roman history. (Cluver. Jtnl. p. 701); llolsten. A 'hint, p. 127; Westphal, liomische Kampagne, p. 127; Cell's Top. of Rome, p. 4448; Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 125; Reichard, The- saur. Topogr.) [E. H. B.] ALLl'FAK ('AAAi AUobrogOft, who seem to have had soin<>, territory on the north side of the Rhone above the junction of the Rhone with the Arar (Saone). To the south of the Allobroges were the Vocontii. The limits of their territory may be generally defined in one direction, by a line drawn from Vienna ( Vienne) on the Rhone, which was their chief city, to Geneva on the Leman lake. Their land was a wine country. The Allobroges are first mentioned in history as having joined Hannibal B.C. 218 in his invasion of Italy (Liv. xxi. 31). The Aedui, who were the first allies of Rome north of the Alps, having com- plained of the incursions of the Allobroges into their territory, the Allobroges were attacked and defeated near the junction of the Rhone and the Saone by Q. Fabius Maximus (B. c. 121), who from his vic- tory derived the cognomen Allobrogicus. Under Roman dominion they became a more agricultural people, as Strabo describes them (p. 185): most of them lived in small towns or villages, and their chief place was Vienna. The Allobroges were looked on with suspicion by their conquerors, for though conquered they retained their old animosity ; and their dislike of Roman dominion will explain the attempt made by the conspirators with Catiline to gain over the Allobroges through some ambas- sadors of the nation who were then in Rome (B. c. 63). The ambassadors, however, through fear or some other motive, betrayed the conspirators (Sail. Cat 41). When Caesar was governor of Gallia, the Allobroges north of the Rhone fled to him for protection against the Helvetii, who were then marching through then: country, B. c. 58 (B. G. i. 11). The Allobroges had a senate, or some body that in a manner corresponded to the Roman senate (Cic. Cat. iii. 5). In the division of Gallia under Augustus, the Allobroges were included in Narbo- nensis, the Provincia of Caesar (B. G. i. 10) ; and in the late division of Gallia, they formed the Vien- nensis. [G.L.] ALMA, ALMUS A\/j.a, Dion Cass. Iv. 30; Aurel. Viet. Epitom. 38, Probus ; Eutrop. ix. 17; Vopiscus, Probus, 18), a mountain in Lower Pan- nonia, near Sirmium. The two robber-chieftains Bato made this mountain their stronghold during the Dalmatian insurrection in A. D. 6 7. (Diet, of Biogr. art. Bato.) It was planted with vines by the emperor Probus about A. D. 280 81, the spot being probably recommended to him by its contiguity to his native town of Sirmium. [W. B. D.] ALMO, a small river flowing into the Tiber on its left bank, just below the walls of Rome. Ovid calls it " cursu brevissimus Almo" (Met. xiv. 329), from which it is probable that he regarded the stream that rises from a copious source under an artificial grotto at a spot called La Ca/arella as the true Almo. This stream is, however, joined by others that furnish a much larger supply of water, one of the most considerable of which, called the Marrana degli Orti, flows from the source near Marino that was the ancient Aqua Ferentina, another is commonly known as the' Acqua Santa. The grotto and source already mentioned were long regarded, but certainly without foundation, as those of Egeria, and the Vallis Egeriae was supposed to be the Voile della Caffarella, through which the Almo flows. The grotto itself appears to have been constructed in imperial times: it contains a marble figure, much mutilated, which is probably that of the tutelary deity of the stream, or the pod Almo. (Nardini, Roma Antica, vol. i. pp. 157 161, with 106 ALMOPIA. Nibby's notes ; Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 130; Cell, Top. of Rome, p. 48; Burgess, An- tiquities of Rome, vol. i. p. 107.) From this spot, which is about half a mile from the church of S*. Sebastiano, and two miles from the gates of Rome, the Almo has a course of between 3 and 4 miles to its confluence with the Tiber, crossing on the way both the Via Appia and the Via Ostiensis. It was at the spot where it joins the Tiber that the celebrated statue of Cybele was landed, when it was brought from Pessinus in Phrygia to Rome in B. c. 204; and in memory of this circumstance the sin- gular ceremony was observed of washing the image of the goddess herself, as well as her sacred imple- ments, in the waters of the Almo, on a certain day (6 Kal. Apr., or the 27th of March) in every year: a superstition which subsisted down to the final extinction of paganism. (Ov. Fast. iv. 337 340 ; Lucan. i. 600; Martial, iii. 47. 2; Stat. Silv. v. 1. 222 ; Sil. Ital. viii. 365 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 3. 7.) The little stream appears to have retained the name of Almo as late as the seventh century : it is now commonly called the Acquataccia, a name which is supposed by some to be a corruption of Acqua d Appia, from its crossing the Via Appia. The spot where it is traversed by that road was about 1 mile from the ancient Porta Capena ; but the first region of the city, according to the arrangement of Au- gustus, was extended to the very bank of the Almo. (Preller, Die Regionen Roms, p. 2.) [E. H. B.] ALMO'PIA ('AAjuwirfa), a district in Macedonia inhabited by the ALMOPES ('AA/iWTres), is said to have been one of the early conquests of the Argive colony of the Temenidae. Leake supposes it to be the same country now called Moglena, which bor- dered upon the ancient Ede^sa to the NE. Ptolemy assigns to the Almopes three towns, Horma ("Op^ua), P^uropus (Eupanros), and Apsalus ( v Ai//aAos). (Thuc. ii.99; Steph. B. s. v. ; Lycophr. 1238; Ptol. iii. 13. 24; Leakey Northern Greece, vol. iii. p.444.) ALONTA ('AApiT7?s), a town of Macedonia in the district Bottiaea, is placed by Stephanus in the innermost recess of the Thermaic gulf. According to Scylax it was situated between the Haliacmon and Lydias. Leake supposes it to have occupied the site of Paled-khora, near Kap- sokhori. The town is chiefly known on account of its being the birthplace of Ptolemy, who usurped the Macedonian throne after the murder of Alex- ander II., son of Amyntas, and who is usually called Ptolemaeus Alorites. (Scyl. p. 26 ; Steph. B. s. v. ; Strab. p. 330; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 435, seq.; Diet, of Biogr. vol. iii. p. 568.) ALPE'NI ('AATTTjj/oi, Herod, vii. 176; 'AATTTJV&J iro\is, Herod, vii. 216: Eth. 'AATTTJI/OS), a town of the Epicnemidii Locri at the E. entrance of the pass of Thermopylae. For details, see THERMOPYLAE. ALPES (cu "A\ir(is ; sometimes also, but rarely TO. 'AATretvo opt] and TO. "A\ina opr)\ was the name given in ancient as well as modern times to the great chain of mountains the most extensive and loftiest in Europe, which forms the northern boundary of Italy, separating that country from Gaul and Ger- many. They extend without interruption from the coast of the Mediterranean between Massilia and Genua, to that of the Adriatic near Trieste, but their boundaries are imperfectly defined, it being almost impossible to fix on any point of demarcation between the Alps and the Apennines, while at the opposite extremity, the eastern ridges of the Alps, which separate the Adriatic from the vallies of the Save and the Drave, are closely connected with the Illy- rian ranges of mountains, which continue almost without interruption to the Black Sea. Hence Pliny speaks of the ridges of the Alps as softening as they descend into Illyricum (" mitescentia Alpium juga per medium Illyricum," iii. 25. s. 28), and Mela goes so far as to assert that the Alps extend into Thrace (Mela, ii. 4). But though there is much plausibility in this view considered as a question of geographical theory, it is not probable that the term was ever familiarly employed in so extensive a sense. On the other hand Strabo seems to consider the Jura and even the mountains of the Black Forest in Swabia, in which the Danube takes its rise, as mere offsets of the Alps (p. 207). The name is probably de- rived from a Celtic word Alb or Alp, signifying " a height :" though others derive it from an adjective Alb " white," which is connected with tlie Latin Albus, and is the root of the name of Albion. (Strab. p. 202 ; and see Armstrong's Gaelic Dictionary.') It was not till a late period that the Greeks appear to have obtained any distinct knowledge of the Alps, which were probably in early tunes regarded as a part of the Rhipaean mountains, a general appella- tion for the great mountain chain, which formed the extreme limit of their geographical knowledge to the north. Lycophron is the earliest extant author who has mentioned their name, which he however erro- neously writes SaATrm (Alex. 1361): and the ac- count given by Apollonius Rhodius (iv. 630, fol.), of the sources of the Rhodanus and the Eridanus proves his entire ignorance of the geography of these regions. The conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans, and still more the passage of Hanuibal over the Alps. ALPKS. fn>t drew general attention to the mountains in question, and Polybius, who had himself visited the portion of the Alpine chain between Italy and Gaul, was the first to give an accurate description of them. Still his geographical knowledge of their course and tent was very imperfect : he justly describes them extending from the neighbourhood of Massilia to head of the Adriatic gulf, but places the sources the Khone in the neighbourhood of the latter, and rs the Alps and that river as running parallel each other from NE. to SW. (Polyb. ii. 14, , iii. 47.) Strabo more correctly describes the as forming a great curve like a bow, the con- side of which was turned towards the plains of y ; the apx of the curve being the territory of the Salassi, while both extremities make a bend round, the one to the Ligurian shore near Genoa, the to the head of the Adriatic. (Strab. pp. 128, 0.) He justly adds that throughout this whole they formed a continuous chain or ridge, so they might be almost regarded as one moun- : but that to the east and north they sent out offshoots and minor ranges in different direc- (Id. iv. p. 207.) Already previous to the of Strabo the complete subjugation of the Alpine by Augustus, and the construction of several h roads across the principal passes of the chain, as well as the increased commercial intercourse with the nations on the other side, had begun to render the Alps comparatively familiar to the Romans. But Strabo himself remarks (p. 71) that their geogra- phical position was still imperfectly known, and the errors of detail of which he is guilty in describing them fully confirm the statement. Ptolemy, though writing at a later period, seems to have been still more imperfectly acquainted with them, as he re- presents the Mons Adula (the St. Gothard or Splu- gen) as the point where the chain takes its great bend from a northern to an easterly direction, while Strabo correctly assigns the territory of the Salassi the point where this change takes place. As the Romans became better acquainted with Alps, they began to distinguish the different ons of the chain by various appellations, which tinued in use under the empire, and are still ge- ly adopted by geographers. These distinctive hets are as follows: 1. ALPKS MARITIMAE (*A\7reis Trapd\iot, or TTO- i), the Maritime Alps, was the name given, bly from an early period, to that portion of the which abuts immediately upon the Tyrrhenian between Marseilles and Genoa. Their limit was by some writers at the Portus Monoeci or Mo- , immediately above which rises a lofty headland which stood the trophy erected by Augustus to commemorate the subjugation of the Alpine tribes [TROPAEUM AUGUSTI.] Strabo however more judiciously regards the whole range along the coast of Liguria as far as Vada Sabbata ( Facto), as be- longing to the Maritime Alps: and this appears to have been in accordance with the common usage of later times, as we find both the Intemelii and In- gauni generally reckoned among the Alpine tribes. (Si nib. pp. 201,202; Liv. xxviii. 46; Tac. Hist. ii. 12; Vopisc. Procul. 12.) From this point as far as the river Varus ( Far) the mountains descend quite to the sea-shore: but from the mouth of the Varus they trend to the north, and this continues to be the direction of the main chain as far as the com- mencement of the Pennine Alps. The only moun- tains in this part of the range of which the ancient ALPKS. 107 nanie.s have been preserved to us arc the MONS ( 'J..M,\ , in which the Yarns had its source (Plin. iii. 4. s. 5), now called la Caillole; and the MONS VESULUS, now Monte Viso, from which the Padus takes its rise. (Plin. iii. 16. s. 20; Mela, ii.4; Serv.ad Aen. x.708.) Pliny calls this the most lofty summit of the Alps, which is far from being correct, but its isolated cha- racter, and proximity to the plains of Italy, combined with its really great elevation of 1 1 ,200 feet above the sea, would readily convey this impression to an unscientific observer. At a later period of the empire we find the Alpes Maritimae constituting a separate province, with its own Procurator (Orell. Inscr. 2214, 3331, 5040), but the district thus designated was much more ex- tensive than the limits just stated, as the capital of the province was Ebrodunum (Embrun) in Gaul. (Bocking, ad Notit. Dign. pp. 473, 488.) 2. ALPES COTTIAE, or COTTIANAE, the Cottian Alps, included the next portion of the chain, from the Mons Yesulus northward, extending apparently to the neighbourhood of the Mont Cenis, though their limit is not clearly defined. They derived their name from Cottius, an Alpine chieftain, who having conciliated the favour and friendship of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this portion of the Alps, with the title of Praefect. His territory, which comprised twelve petty tribes, appears to have ex- tended from Ebrodunum or Embrun in Gaul, as far as Segusio or Susa in Italy, and included the pass of the Mont Genevre, one of the most frequented and important lines of communication between the two countries. (Strab. pp. 179, 204; Plin. iii. 20. s.24; Tac. Hist. i. 61, iv. 68; Amm. Marc. xv. 10.) The territory of Cottius was united by Nero to the Roman empire, and constituted a separate province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. But after the time of Constantine this appellation was extended so as to comprise the whole of the province or region of Italy previously known as Liguria. [LIGURIA.] (Orell. Imcr. 2156, 3601 ; Notit. Dign. ii. p. 66, and Bocking, ad loc.j P. Diac. ii. 17.) The principal rivers which have their sources in this part of the Alps are the DRUENTIA (Durance) on the W. and the DURIA (Dora Riparia) on the E., which is confounded by Strabo (p. 203) with the river of the same name (now called Dora Baltea) that flows through the country of the Salassi. 3. ALPES GRAIAE ( AAireis rpcueu, Ptol.) called also MONS GRAIUS (Tac. Hist. iv. 68), was the name given to the Alps through which lay the pass now known as the Little St. Bernard. The precise ex- tent in which the term was employed cannot be fixed, and probably was never defined by the ancients themselves ; but modem geographers generally regard it as comprising the portion of the chain which ex- tends from the Mont Cents to Mont Blanc. The real origin of the appellation is unknown; it is pro- bably derived from some Celtic word, but the Roman.-i in later times interpreted it as meaning Grecian, and connected it with the fabulous passage of the Alps by Hercules on his return from Spain. In confirm ation of this it appears that some ancient altars (probably Celtic monuments) were regarded as having been erected by him upon this occasion, and the mountains themselves are called by some writer.-* ALPES GRAECAE. (Plin. iii. 20. s. 24 ; Amm. Marc, xv. 10. 9 ; Petron. de B. C. 144151 ; Nep. Hann. 3.) Livy appears to apply the name of " Cremonis ju- gum"to this part of the Alps (xxi.38), a name which has been supposed to be retained by the Cramont, a 108 ALPKS. mountain near St.Didier. Pliny (xi. 42. s.97) terms them ALPES CENTUONICAE from the Gaulish tribe of the Centrones, who occupied their western slopes. 4. ALPES PENNINAE, or POENINAE, the Pennine Alps, was the appellation by which the Romans de- signated the loftiest and most central part of the chain, extending from the Mont Blanc on the W., to the Monte Rosa on the E. The first form of the name is evidently the most correct, and was derived from the Celtic " Pen" or " Ben" a height or sum- mit; but the opinion having gained ground that the pass of the Great St. Bernard over these mountains was the route pursued by Hannibal, the name was considered to be connected with that of the Cartha- ginians (Poeni), and hence the form Poeninae is frequently adopted by later writers. Livy himself points out the error, and adds that the name was really derived, according to the testimony of the in- habitants, from a deity to whom an altar was conse- crated on the summit of the pass, probably the same who was afterwards worshipped by the Romans themselves as Jupiter Penninus. (Liv. xxi. 38 ; Plin. iii. 17. s. 21; Strab. p. 205; Tac. Hist. i. 61, 87; Amm. Marc. xv. 10; Serv. ad Virg. Aen. x. 13; Orell. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104.) The limits of the Pennine Alps are nowhere very clearly designated ; but it seems that the whole upper valley of the Khone, the modern Valais, was called Vallis Poenina (see Orell. Inscr. 211), and Ammianus expressly places the sources of the Rhone in the Pennine Alps (xv. 11. 16), so that the term must have been frequently applied to the whole extent of the moun- tain chain from the Mont Blanc eastward as far as the St. Gothard. The name of ALPES LEPONTIAE from the Gaulish tribe of the Lepontii, is frequently applied by modem geographers to the part of the range inhabited by them between the Monte Rosa and the Mont St. Gothard, but there is no ancient authority for the name. The " Alpes Graiae et Poeninae," during the later periods of the Roman empire, constituted a separate province, which was united with Transalpine Gaul. Its chief towns were Darantasia and Octodurus. (Amm. Marc. xv. 11. t!2; Orell. Inscr. 3888; Not. Dlgn. ii. p. 72; bcking, ad loc. p. 472.) Connected with these we find mentioned the Alpes Atractianae or Atrecti- anae, a name otherwise wholly unknown. 5. The ALPES RHAETICAE, orRhaetian Alps, may be considered as adjoining the Pennine Alps on the east, and including the greater part of the countries now called the Orisons and the Tyrol. Under this more general appellation appears to have been com- prised the mountain mass called Mons Adula, in which both Strabo and Ptolemy place the sources of the Rhine [ADULA MONS], while Tacitus expressly tells us that that river rises in one of the most inac- cessible and lofty mountains of the Rhaetian Alps. (Germ. 1.) The more eastern portion of the Rhae- tian Alps, in which the Athesis and Atagis have their sources, is called by Pliny and by various other writers the ALPES TRIDENTINAE, from the important city of Tridentum in the Southern Tyrol. (Plin. iii. 16. s. 20; Dion Cass. liv. 22; Flor. iii. 4.) 6. The eastern portion of the Alps from the valley of the Athesis and the pass of the Brenner to the plains of Pannonia and the sources of the Save appear to have been known by various appellations, of which it is not easy to determine the precise extent or ap- plication. The northern arm of the chain, which extends through Noricum to the neighbourhood of Vienna, was known as the ALPES NORICAE (Flor. ALPES. iii. 4; Plin. iii. 25. s. 28), while the more southern range, which bounds the plains of Venetia, and curves round the modern Frioul to the neighbourhood of Trieste, was variously known as the ALPES CAU- NICAE and JULIAE. The former designation, em- ployed by Pliny (I c.), they derived from the Garni who inhabited their mountain fastnesses : the latter, which appears to have become customary in later times (Tac. Hist. iii. 8; Amm. Marc. xxi. 9, xxxi. 16; Itin. Hier. p. 560; Sex. Ruf. Breviar. 7), from Julius Caesar, who first reduced the Garni to subjection, and founded in their territory the towns of Julium Carnicum and Forum Julii, of which the latter has given to the province its modern name of the Frioul. We find also this part of the Alps some- times termed ALPES VENETAE (Amm. Marc. xxxi. 16. 7) from their bordering on the province of Venetia. The mountain ridge immediately above Trieste, which separates the waters of the Adriatic from the valley of the Save, and connects the Alps, properly so called, with the mountains of Dalmatia and Illyricum, was known to the Romans as MONS OCRA"(O/CP, Strab. p. 207; Ptol. iii. 1. 1), from whence one of the petty tribes in the neigh- bourhood of Tergeste was called the Subocrini. (Plin. iii. 20. s. 24.) Strabo justly observes that this is the lowest part of the whole Alpine range : in consequence of which it was from a very early period traversed by a much frequented pass, that became the medium of active commercial intercourse from the Roman colony of Aquileia with the valleys of the Save and Drove, and by means of those rivers with the plains on the banks of the Danube. 7. We also find, as already mentioned, the name of the Alps sometimes extended to the mountain ranges of Illyricum and Dalmatia: thus Pliny (xi. 42. s. 97) speaks of the ALPES DALMATICAE, and Tacitus of the ALPES PANNONICAE (Hist. ii. 98, iii. 1), by which however he perhaps means little more than the Julian Alps. But this extensive use of the term does not seem to have ever been generally adopted. The physical characters of the Alps, and those natural phenomena which, though not peculiar to them, they yet exhibit on a greater scale than any other mountains of Europe, must have early attracted the attention of travellers and geographers : and the difficulties and dangers of the passes over them were, as was natural, greatly exaggerated. Polybius was the first to give a rational account of them, and has described their characteristic features on occasion of the passage of Hannibal in a manner of which the accuracy has been attested by all modern writers. Strabo also gives a very good account of them, noticing particularly the danger arising from the avalanches or sudden falls of snow and ice, which detached themselves from the vast frozen masses above, and hurried the traveller over the side of the precipice (p. 204). Few attempts appear to have been made to estimate their actual height; bu,t Polybius remarks that it greatly exceeds that of the highest mountains of Greece and Thrace,01ympus,0ssa, Athos &c. : for that almost any of these mountains might be ascended by an active walker in a single day. while he would scarcely ascend the Alps in five : a statement greatly exaggerated. (Polyb. op. Strab. p. 209.) Strabo on the contrary tells us, that the direct ascent of the highest summits of the mountains in the territory of the Medulli, did not exceed 100 stadia, and the same distance for the descent on the other bide into Italy (p. 203), while Pliny ALPES. (ii. 65) appears to estimate the perpendicular height of some of the loftiest summits at not less tbxu fifty HI ill-.*! The length of the whole range is estimated by Polybius at only 2200 stadia, while Caelius An- tipater (quoted by Pliny iii. 18. s. 22) stated it as not less than 1000 miles, reckoning along the foot of the mountains from sea to sea. Pliny himself esti- mates the same distance calculated from the river Yams to the Arsia at 745 miles, a fair approxima- tion to the truth. He also justly remarks that the very dirtl-rent estimates of the breadth of the Alps given by different authors were founded on the fact of its great inequality: the eastern portion of the range between Germany and Italy being not less than 100 miles across, while the other portions did not exceed 70. (Plin.iii. 19. s. 23.) Strabo tells us that while the more lofty summits of the Alps were either covered with perpetual snow, or so bare and rugged as to be altogether uninhabitable, the sides were clothed with extensive forests, and the lower slopes and vallies were cultivated and well peopled. There was however always a scarcity of com, which the inhabitants procured from those of the plains in ex- change for the productions of their mountains, the chief of which were resin, pitch, pine wood for torches, wax, honey, and cheese. Previous to the time of Augustus, the Alpine tribes had been given to pre- datory habits, and were continually plundering their more wealthy neighbours, but after they had been completely subdued and roads made through their territories they devoted themselves more to the arts of peace and husbandry. (Strab. pp. 206, 207.) Nor were the Alps wanting in more valuable pro- ductions. Gold mines or rather washings were worked in them in various places, especially in the territory of the Salassi (the Val cFAosta), where the Romans derived a considerable revenue from them ; and in the Noric Alps, near Aquileia, where gold was found in lumps as big as a bean after digging only a few feet below the surface (Strab. pp. 205, 208). The iron mines of the Noric Alps were also well known to the Romans, and highly esteemed for the excellent quality of the metal furnished by them, which was peculiarly well adapted for swords. (Plin. xxxiv. 14. s.41 ; Hor. Carm. 1. 16. 9, Epod. xvii.71.) The rock crystal so abundant in the Alps was much valued by the Romans, and diligently sought for in consequence by the natives. (Plin. xxxvii.2. s.9, 10.) Several kinds of animals are also noticed by ancient writers as peculiar to the Alps ; among these are the Chamois (the rupicapra of Pliny), the Ibex, and the Marmot. Pliny also mentions white hares and white grouse or Ptarmigan. (Plin. viii. 79. s. 81, x. 68. s.85; Varr. de R. R. iii. 12.) Polybius described a large animal of the deer kind, but with a neck like a wild boar, evidently the Elk(Cervus Alces) now found onlyin the north of Europe. (Poljb.ap. Strab. p.208.) It would be impossible here to enumerate in detail all the petty tribes which inhabited the vallies and slopes of the Alps. The inscription on the trophy of Augustus already mentioned, gives the names of not less than forty-four " Gentes Alpinae devictae," many of which are otherwise wholly unknown (Plin. iii. 20. s. 24). The inscription on the arch at Sitsa mentions fourteen tribes that were subject to Cottius, of which the greater part are equally obscure. (Orell. Inscr. 626; Milliu, Voy. en Fiemont, vol. i. p. 106.) Those tribes, whose locality can be deter- mined with tolerable certainty, or whose names ap- pear in history, will be found under their respective articles: for an examination of the whole list the ALPES. 109 reader may consult Walckenaer, Geogrnplde dcs dinilcs vol. ii. pp. 43 66. The eternal snows and glaciers of the Alps are the sources from which flow several of the largest rivers of Europe: the Rhone, the Rhine, and the Po, as well as the great tributaries of the Danube, the Inn, tho Drave and the Save. It would be useless here to enter into a geographical or detailed enumeration of the countless minor streams which derive their sources from the Alps, and which will be found under the countries to which they severally belong. Passes of the Alps. Many of the passes across the great central chain of the Alps are so clearly indicated by the course of the rivers which rise in them, and the vallies through which these flow, that they must probably have been known to the neighbouring tribes from a very early period. Long before the passage of the western Alps by Hannibal, we know that these mountains were crossed by successive swarms of Gaulish in- vaders (Polyb. iii. 48 ; Liv. v. 33), and there is every reason to suppose that the more easily accessible passes of the Rhaetian and Julian Alps had afforded a way for the migrations of nations in still earlier ages. The particular route taken by Hannibal is still a subject of controversy.* But it is clear from the whole narrative of Polybius, that it was one already pre- viously known and frequented by the mountaineers that guided him : and a few years later his brother Hasdrubal appears to have crossed the same pass with comparatively little difficulty. Polybius, ac- cording to Strabo, was acquainted with only four passes, viz. : 1 . that through Liguria by the Maritime Alps; 2. that through the Taurini, which was the one traversed by Hannibal ; 3. that through the Sa- lassi; and 4. that through the Rhaetians. (Polyb. ap. Strab. p. 209.) At a later period Pompey, on his march into Spain (B. c. 77), opened out a pas- sage for his army, which he describes as " different from that of Hannibal, but more convenient for the Romans." (Pompeii Epist. ap. Sallust. Hist. iii. p. 230, ed. Gerlach.) Shortly after this time Varro (in a passage in which there appears to be much confusion) speaks of five passes across the Alps (without including the more easterly ones), which he enumerates as follows: "Una, quae est juxta mare per Liguras; altera qua Hannibal transiit; tertia qua Pompeius ad Hispaniense bellum pro- fectus est : quarta qua Hasdrubal de Gallia in Italiam venit : quinta, quae quondam a Graecis possessa est, quae exinde Alpes Graeciae appel- lantur." (Varr. ap. Serv. ad Aen. x. 13.) From the time of the reduction of the Transalpine Gauls by J. Caesar, and that of the Alpine tribes by Au- gustus, the passes over the Alps came to be well known, and were traversed by high roads, several of which, however, on account of the natural difficulties of the mountains, were not practicable for carriages. These passes were the following: 1. " PER ALPES MARITIMAS," along the coast of Liguria, at the foot of the Maritime Alps from Genua to the mouth of the Varus. Though the line of sea-coast must always have offered a natural means of communication, it could hardly have been frequented by the Romans until the wild tribes of the Ligurians had been effectually subdued ; and it appears certain that no regular road was constructed * See the article HANNIBAL, in the Diet. ofBiogr. vol. ii. p. 333, and the works there referred to. no ALPES. along it till the time of Augustus. The monument which that emperor erected over the highest part of the pass (just above the Portus Monoeci), to commemo- rate the reduction of the Alpine tribes, is still ex- tant, and the Roman road may be distinctly traced for several miles on each side of it. [TROPAEA AUGUSTI.] It did not follow the same line as the modern road, but, after ascending from near Men- tone to the summit of the pass at Turbia, descended a side valley to Cemenelion (Cimiez), and proceeded from thence direct to the mouth of the Varus, leaving Nicaea on the left. The stations along this road from Vada Sabbata (Vado) to Antip)lis are thus given in the Itin. Ant. p. 296: M.P. M.P. Pullopice - xii. Lumone - - x. Albingauno Alpe Summa ( Turbia) vi. (Albenga) - viii. Cemenelo (Cimiez) - viii. Luco Bormani - xv. Varum flumen - vi. Costa Balenae - xvi. Antipolis (Antibes) - x. Albintimilio ( Vin- timiglid) - xvi. This line of road is given in the Itinerary as a part of the Via Aurelia, of which it was undoubtedly a continuation; but we learn from the inscriptions of the mile-stones discovered near Turbia that it was properly called the Via Julia. 2. " PER ALPES COTTIAS," by the pass now called the Mont Genevre, from Augusta Taurinorum to Brigantio (Brianqon) and Ebrodunum (Embruri) in Gaul. This was the most direct line of communi- cation from the north of Italy to Transalpine Gaul : it is evidently that followed by Caesar when he hastened to oppose the Helvetii, " qua proximum iter in ulteriorem Galliam per Alpes erat " (B. G. i. 10), and is probably the same already mentioned as having been first explored by Pompey. It was after- wards one of the passes most frequented by the Ro- mans, and is termed by Ammianus (xv. 10) " via media et compendiaria." That writer has given a detailed account of the pass, the highest ridge of which was known by the name of MATRONAE MONS, a name retained in the middle ages, and found in the Itin. Hierosol. p. 556. Just at its foot, on the Italian side, was the station AD MAKTIS, probably near the modern village of Oulx. The distances given in the Itin. Ant. (p. 341) are, from Taurini (Augusta Taurinorum) to Segusio (Susa) 51 M. P. (a great overstatement: the correct distance would be 36); thence Ad Martis - xvi. Ramae - xviii. Brigantio - xviii. Eburodono xviii. Though now little frequented, this pass is one of the lowest and easiest of those over the main chain. 3. " PER ALPES GRAIAS," by the Little St. Ber- nard. This route, which led from Milan and the plains of the Po by the valley of the Salassi to Au- gusta Praetoria (A osta), and from thence across the mountain pass into the valley of the Isara (Isere), and through the Tarentaise to Vienna and Lug- dunum, is supposed by many writers to have been that followed by Hannibal. It was certainly crossed by D. Brutus with his army after the battle of Mu- tina, B. c. 43. But though it presents much less natural difficulties than its neighbour the Great St. Bernard, it appears to have been little frequented, on account of the predatory habits of the Salassians, until Augustus, after having completely subdued that people, constructed a carriage road over the Graian Alps, which thenceforward became one of the most important and frequented lines of communi- ALPES. cation between Italy and Gaul. (Strab p. 208 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 66, iv. 68.) The stations on this route are thus given in the Itinerary, beginning from Eporedia, at the entrance of the Val d'Aosta : M.P. Vitricium (Verrez) - xxi. Augusta Praetoria (Aosta) - xxv. Arebrigium ( Didier) - - xxv. Rergintrum (Bourg. S. Maurice) xxiv. Darantasia (Moustiers) - - xviii. Obilinum - xiii. Ad Publicanos (Con/tans') - iii. From thence there branched off two lines of road, the one by Lemincum (Chambery) and Augusta Allubrogum to Vienna, the other northwards to Ge- neva and the Lacus Lemannus. 4. " PER ALPES PENNINAS," by the Great St. Bernard. This route, which branched off from the former at Augusta Praetoria, and led direct across the mountain, from thence to Octodurus (Martigny) in the valley of the Rhone, and the head of the Lake Lemannus, appears to have been known and fre- quented from very early times, though it was never rendered practicable for carriages. Caesar speaks of it as being used to a considerable extent by mer- chants and traders, notwithstanding the exactions to which they were subjected by the wild tribes that then occupied this part of the Alps. (B. G. iii. 1.) The numerous inscriptions and votive tablets that have been discovered sufficiently attest how much this pass was frequented in later times : and it was repeatedly traversed by Roman armies. (Orell. Inter, vol. i. p. 104; Tac. Hint. i. 61, iv. 68.) The distances by this road are thus given in the Itinerary. From Augusta Praetoria to the summit of the pass, Summo Pennine, where stood a temple of Jupiter M. P. xxv. ; thence to Octodorus (Martigny) xxv. ; and from thence to Viviscum (Vevay) 34 miles, passing two obscure stations, the names of which are probably corrupt. 5. The next pass, for which we find no appro- priate name, led from the head of the Lacus Larius to Brigantia (Bregenz), on the Lake of Constance. We find no mention of this route in early times; but it must have been that taken by Stilicho, in the depth of winter, when he proceeded from Mediolanum through the Rhaetian Alps to summon the Vinde- licians and Noricans to the relief of Honorius. (Clau- dian. B. Get. v. 320 360.) The Itineraries give two routes across this part of the Alps; the one apparently following the line of the modern pass of the Splugen, by Clavenna (Chiavenna) and Tar- vessedo (?) to Curia ( Coire} : the other crossing the pass of the Septimer, by Murus and Tinnetio (Tin- zeri) to Curia, where it rejoined the preceding route. 6. " PER ALPES RHAETICAS or TRIDENTIXAS,'' through the modem Tyrol, which, from the natural facilities it presents, must always have been one of the most obvious means of communication between Italy and the countries on the S. of the Danube. The high road led from Verona to Tridentum (where it was joined by a cross road from Opitergium through the Val Sugana~), and thence up the valley of the Athesis as far as Botzen, from which point it fol- lowed the Atagis or Eisach to its source, and crossed the pass of the Brenner to Veldidana ( Wilden, near Insbruck~), and from thence across another mountain pass to Augusta Vindelicorum. [RHAETIA.] 7. A road led from Aquileia to Julium Carnicum (ZugKo), and from thence across the Julian Alps to ALPHEIUS. Loneium in the valley of the Gail, and by that valley and the Paster Thai to join the preceding road at Vipitenum, near the foot of the Brenner. The sta- tions (few of which can be determined with any certainty) are thus given (Itin. Ant, p. 279): RI. 1*. From Aquileia Ad Tricesimum - xxx. Julium Carnicum xxx. Loncio - - xxii. Agunto - - xviii. Littamo - - xxiii. Sebato - - xxiii. Vipiteno - - xxxiii. 8. Another high road led from Aquileia eastward up the valley of the Wippach, and from thence :UTOSS the barren mountainous tract of comparatively Mnall elevation (the Mons Ocra), which separates it from the valley of the Savus, to Aemona in Pan- nonia. There can be no doubt that this pass, which presents no considerable natural difficulties, was from the earliest ages the highway of nations from the banks of the Danube info Italy, as it again became after the fall of the Roman empire. (P. Diac. ii. 10.) The distance from Aquileia to Aemona is given by the Itin. Ant. at 76 Roman miles, which cannot be far from the truth; but the intermediate stations are very uncertain. [E. H. B.] ALPHEIUS ('AA6J(k: Rufea, Rufd or Rojid, and River of Karitena), the chief river of Pelo- ponnesus, rises in the SE. of Arcadia on the fron- tiers of Laconia, flows in a westerly direction through Arcadia and Elis, and after passing Olympia falls into the Ionian Sea. The Alpheius, tike several other rivers and lakes in Arcadia, disappears more than once in the limestone mountains of the country, and then emerges again, after flowing some distance underground. Pausanias (viii. 54. 1, seq., 44. 4) relates that the source of the Alpheius is at 1'hvlace, on the frontiers of Arcadia and Laconia; and that, after receiving a stream rising from many small fountains, at a place called Symbola, it flows into the territory of Tegea, where it sinks under- ground. It rises again at the distance of 5 stadia Asea, close to the fountain of the Eurotas. e two rivers then mix their waters, and after flowing in a common channel for the distance of nearly 20 stadia, they again sink underground, and reappear, the Eurotas in Laconia, the Alpheius at Pegae, the Fountains, in the territory of Mega- lopolis in Arcadia. Strabo (p. 343) also states that e Alpheius and Eurotas rise from two fountains r Asea, and that, after flowing several stadia ^erground, the Eurotas reappears in the Blemi- tis in Laconia, and the Alpheius in Arcadia. In her passage (p. 275) Strabo relates, that it was common belief that if two chaplets dedicated to e Alpheius and the Eurotas were thrown into the m near Asea, each would reappea r at the sources the river to which it was destined. This story accords with the statement of Pausanias as to the union of the waters from the two fountains, and their course in a common channel. The account of Pausanias is confirmed in many particulars by the observations of Colonel Leake and others. The river, in the first part of its course, is now called the Sardnda, which rises at Krya Vrysi, the ancient Phylace, and which receives, a little below Krya Vrysi, a stream formed of several small mountain torrents, by which the ancient Symbola is recog- nised. On entering the Tegeatic plain, the Sardnda now flows to the N E. ; but there are strong reasons ALSA. Ill K iuu s: flo,,.; for believing that it anciently flowed to the XW., and disappeared in the Katav6thra of the marsh of Taki.* (Leake, Peloponnesiaca, p. 112, seq.) The two reputed sources of the Alpheius and Eu- rotas are found near the remains of Asea, at the copious source of water called Franyovrysi ; but whether the source of the Alpheius be really the vent of the lake of Taki, cannot be decided with certainty. These two fountains unite their waters, as Pausanias describes, and again sink into the earth. After passing under a mountain called Tzim- bann, the Alpheius reappears at Marmara, probably Pegae. (Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 37, seq.) Below Pegae, the Alpheius receives the HELISSON ('E\uTffv: River of Davia), on which Megalopolis was situated, 30 stadia from the confluence. Below this, and near the town of Brenthe (Karitena), the Alpheius flows through a defile in the mountains, called the pass of Lavdha. This pass is the only opening in the mountains, by which the waters of central Arcadia find their way to the western sea. It divides the upper plain of the Alpheius, of which Megalopolis was the chief place, from the lower plain, in which Heraea was situated. (Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 19, seq.) Below Heraea, the Alpheius receives the LA DON (AaSw^), which rises near Cleitor, and is celebrated in mythology as the father of Daphne. The Ladon is now called Rufea, Rufia or Rofid, by which name the Alpheius is called below its junction with the Ladon. In the upper part of its course the Alpheius is usually called the River of Karitena. Below the Ladon, at the distance of 20 stadia, the Alpheius receives the ERYMANTHUS ('Epujwavflos), rising in the mountain of the same name, and forming the boun- dary between Elis and the territories of Heraea in Arcadia. After entering Elis, it flows past Olym- pia, forming the boundary between Pisatis and Triphylia, and falls into the Cyparissian gulf in the Ionian sea. At the mouth of the river was a temple and grove of Artemis Alpheionia. From the pass of Lavdha to the sea, the Alpheius is wide and shal- low : in summer it is divided into several torrents, flowing between islands or sandbanks over a wide gravelly bed, while in winter it is full, rapid, and turbid. Its banks produce a great number of large plane-trees. (Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 67, Pelo ponnesiaca, p. 8.) Alpheius appears as a celebrated river-god in mythology; and it was apparently the subterranean passage of the river in the upper part of its course which gave rise to the fable that the Alpheius flowed beneath the sea, and attempted to mingle its waters with the fountain of Arethusa in the island of Or- tygia in Syracuse. (Diet, of Biogr. art. Alpheius.) Hence Ovid calls the nymph Arethusa, Alpheias. (Met. v. 487.) Virgil (Aen. x. 179) gives the epi- thet of Alpheae to the Etruscan city of Pisae, because the latter was said to have been founded by colonists from Pisa in Elis, near which the Alpheius flowed. ALSA, a small river of Venetia (Plin. iii. 18. s.22) still called the A ttsa, which flows into the lagunes ot Marano, a few miles W. of Aquileia. A battle was fought on its banks in A. D. 340, between the younger Constantino and the generals of his brother Constans, in which Constantine himself was slain, and his body thrown into the river Alsa. (Victor, Epit. 41. 21; Hieron. Chron. ad ann. 2356.) * The preceding account will be made clearer by referring to the map under MANTINEIA. 112 ALSIETINUS. ALSIETI'NUS LACUS, a small lake in Etruria, about 2 miles distant from the Lacus Sabatinus, between it and the basin or crater of Baccano, now called the Logo di Martignano. Its ancient name is preserved to us only by Frontinus, from whom we learn that Augustus conveyed the water from thence to Rome by an aqueduct, named the Aqua Alsietina, more than 22 miles in length. The water was, however, of inferior quality, and served only to supply a Naumachia, and for purposes of irrigation. It was joined at CAREIAE, a station on the Via Claudia, 15 miles from Rome, by another branch bringing water from the Lacus Sabatinus. (Frontin. de Aquaed. 11, 71.) The channel of the aque- duct is still in good preservation, where it issues from the lake, and may be traced for many miles of its course. (Nibby, JDlntorni, vol. i. pp. 133 137.) [E.H.B.] A'LSIUM ("AAV 'AAoimVaJi/. (Castell. Inscr. Sicil p. 55; Bbckh, C. I. No. 5608.) Notwithstanding these arguments, Cluverius, fol- lowing Fazello, placed Aluntium at a spot near S.Filadelfo, where the ruins of an ancient city were then visible, and regarded S. Marco as the site of Agathyrna. It must be admitted that this ar- rangement avoids some difficulties [AGATHYRNA] ; but the above proofs in favour of the contrary hy- pothesis seem almost conclusive. (Cluver. Sicil. p. 294 ; Fazell. de Reb. Sic. ix. 4. p. 384.) [E.H.B.] AMANIDES. 113 COIN OF ALUNTIUM. ALYDDA ("AAvSSo), a town of Phrygia men- tioned in the Peutinger Table. Arundell {Discoveries in Asia Minor, i. p. 105) gives his reasons for sup- posing that it may have been at or near UshaTc, on the road between Sart and Afium Karahissar, and that it was afterwards called Flaviopolis. He found several Greek inscriptions there, but none that con- tained the name of the place. [G. L.] ALY'ZIA ('AAwo, Thuc.vii.31, et alii ; 'AAwfca, Steph. B. s.v.: Eth. 'AAueik, 'AAu(>?oy, 'AAufcos, ap. Bockh. Corpus Inscript. No. 1793: Kandili), a town on the west coast of Acarnania. According to Strabo it was distant 15 stadia from the sea, on which it possessed a harbour and a sanctuary, both dedicated to Heracles. In this sanctuary were some works of art by Lysippus, representing the labours of Heracles, which a Roman general caused to be removed to Rome on account of the deserted state of the place. The remains of Alyzia are still visible in the valley of Kandili. The distance of the bay of Kandili from the ruins of Leucas corresponds with the 120 stadia which Cicero assigns for the distance between Alyzia and Leucas. (Strab. pp. 450, 459; Cic. adFam. xvi. 2; Plin. iv. 2; Ptolem. iii. 14.) Alyzia is said to have derived its name from Alyzeus, a son of Icarus. (Strab. p. 452 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.) It is first mentioned by Thucy- dides. In B. c. 374, a naval battle was fought in the neighbourhood of Alyzia between the Athenians under Timotheus and the Lacedaemonians under Nicolochus. The Athenians, says Xenophon, erected their trophy at Alyzia, and the Lacedaemonians in the nearest islands. We learn from Scylax that the island immediately opposite Alyzia was called Carnus, the modern Kalamo. (Time. vii. 31; Xen. Hell. v. 4. 65, 66; Scylax, p. 13; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 14, seq.) AMA'DOCI ('AfictSo/cot), a people of Sarmatia Europaea, mentioned by Hellanicus (Steph. B. s. v.) Their country was called Amadocium. Ptolemy (iii. 5) mentions the Amadoci Montes, E. of the Borysthenes (Dnieper), as an E. prolongation of M. Peuce, and in these mountains the Amadoci, with a city Amodoca and a lake of the same name, the source of a river falling into the Borysthenes. The positions are probably in the S. Russian province of Jelcaterinoslav, or in Kherson. [P. S.] AMALEKI'TAE ('AfiaATjKn-ai, Joseph. Ant. iii. 2 ; in LXX. 'A^aArj/c), the descendants of Amalek the grandson of Esau. (Gen. xxxvi. 9 12.) This tribe of Edomite Arabs extended as far south as the jteninsula of Mount Sinai, where " they fought with Israel in Rephidim " (Exod. xvii. 8, &c.) They occupied the southern borders of the Promised Land, between the Canaanites (Philistines) of the west coast, and the Amorites, whose country lay to the SW. of the Dead Sea. (Compare Gen. xiv. 7 with Numbers xiii. 29, xiv. 25, 43 45.) They dispos~ sessed the Ishmaelite Bedouins, and occupied their country " from Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt." (Compare Gen. xxv. 18 and 1 Sam. xv. 7.) They were nearly exterminated by Saul and David (1 Sam. xv., xxvii. 8, 9, xxx.); and the remnant were destroyed by the Simeonites in the days of Hezekiah. (1 Chron. iv. 42, 43.) They are the Edomites whom David smote in the Valley of Salt (2 Sam. viii. 12, 13; title to Psalm Ix.), doubtless identical with Wady MakJch, about seven hours south of Hebron (Reland's Palestine, pp. 78 82 : Winer's Bib. Real. s. v. ; Williams's Holy City, vol. i. appendix i. pp. 463, 464.) [G. W.] AMA'NIDES PYLAE (A./j.aviSts or 'A^avmal IIuAat), or Amanicae Pylae (Curtius, iii. 18), orPor- tae Amani Montis (Plin. v. 27. s.22). "There are," says Cicero (ad Fam. xv. 4), " two passes from Syria into Cilicia, each of which can be held with a small force owing to their narrowness." These are the passes in the Amanus or mountain range which runs northward from Rds el Khdnzir, which promontory is at the southern entrance of the gulf of Iskenderim (gulf of Issus). This range of Amanus runs along the bay of Iskenderun, and joins the great mass of Taurus, forming a wall between Syria and Cilicia. " There is nothing," says Cicero, speaking of this range of Amanus, " which is better protected against Syria than Cilicia." Of the two passes meant by Cicero, the southern seems to be the pass of Beilan, by which a man can go from Iskenderun to Antioch ; this may be called the lower Amanian pass. The other pass, to which Cicero refers, appears to be NNE. of Issus, in the same range of mountains (Amanus), over which there is still a road from Bayas on the east side of the bay of Issus, ioMarash : this northern pass seems to be the Amanides Pylae of Arrian and Curtius. It was by the Amanides Pylae (Arrian. Anab. ii. 7) that Darius crossed the mountains into Cilicia and came upon Issus, which Alexander had left shortly before. Darius was thus in the rear of Alexander, who had advanced as far as Myriandrus, the site of which is near Istenderun. Alexander turned back and met the Persian king at the river I 114 AMANTIA. Pinarus, between Issus and Myriandrus, where was fought the battle called the battle of Issus. The narrative of Arrian may be compared with the com- mentary of Polybius (xii. 17, 19). Strabo's description of the Amanides (p. 676) is this : " after Mallus is Aegaeae, which has a small fort; then the Amanides Pylae, having an anchorage for ships, at which (pylae) terminate the Amanus mountains, extending down from the Taurus and after Aegaeae is Issus, a small fort having an an- chorage, and the river Pinarus." Strabo therefore places the Amanides Pylae between Aegae and Issus, and near the coast; and the Stadiasmus and Pto- lemy give the same position to the Amanides. This pass is represented by a place now called Kara Kapu on the road between Mallns on the Pyramus (Jehari) and Issus. But there was another pass " which " (as Major Kennell observes, and Leake agrees with him) " crossing Mount Amanus from the eastward, descended upon the centre of the head of the gulf, near Issus. By this pass it was that Darius marched from Sochus, and took up his position on the banks of the Pinarus ; by which movement Alexander, who had just before marched from Mallus to Myriandrus, ihrough the two maritime pylae, was placed between the Persians and Syria." (Leake, Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, p. 210.) This is the pass which has been assumed to be the Amanides of Arrian and Curtius, about NNE. of Issus. It follows from this that the Amanieae Pylae of Arrian (Anab. ii. 7) are not the Amanides of Strabo. Q. Curtius speaks of a pass which Alexander had to go through in marching from the Pyramus to Issus, and this pass must be Kara Kapu. Kara Kapu is not on the coast, but it is not far from it. If Strabo called this the Amanides Pylae, as he seems to have done, he cer- tainly gave the name to a different pass from that by which Darius descended on Issus. There is another passage of Strabo (p. 751) hi which he says: " ad- jacent to Gindarus is Pagrae hi the territory of Antioch, a strong post lying in the line of the pass over the Amanus, I mean that pass which leads from the Amanides Pylae into Syria." Leake is clearly right in not adopting Major Kennell's supposition that Strabo by this pass means the Amanides. He evidently means another pass, that of Beilan, which leads from Iskenderun to JSakras or Pagras, which is the modern name of Pagrae; and Strabo is so far consistent that he describes this pass of Pagrae as leading from the pass which he has called Amanieae. Leake shows thai the Amanides Pylae of Strabo are between Aegaeae and Issus, but he has not sufficiently noticed the difference between Strabo and Arrian, as Cramer observes (Asia Minor, vol. ii. p. 359). The map which illustrates Mr. Ainsworth's paper on the Cilician and Syrian Gates (London Geog. Journal, vol. viii. p. 185), and which is copied on the op- posite page, enables us to form a more correct judg- ment of the text of the ancient writers; and we may now consider it certain that the Amanieae Pylae of the historians of Alexander is the pass NNE. of Issus, and that Strabo has given the name Amanides to a different pass. [G. L.] AMA'NTIA ('Anavria: Eth. 'A^cwTteus, Steph. B. 5. v.; 'A/j.avTi.v6s, Ptol. ii. 16. 3; Amaiitinus, Plin. iv. 10. s. 17. 35; Amantianus, Caes. B. C. iii. 12; "A/jLavres, Etym. M. s. v.; Amantes, Plin. iii. 23. s. 26. 45), a town and district in Greek II- lyria. It is said to have been founded by the Abantes of Euboea, who, according to tradition, settled near the Ceraunian mountains, and founded Amautia and AMANUS. Thronium. From hence the original name of Aman- tia is said to have been Abantia, and the surrounding country to have been called Abantis. (Steph. B. s. v. 'A&Mrls, ' A^a^rio ; Etym. M. s. V. 'A./j.a.VTes ; Paus. v. 22. 3.) Amantia probably stood at some distance from the coast, S. of the river Aous, and on a tributary of the latter, named Polyanthes. (Ly- cophr. 1043.) It is placed by Leake at Nivitza, where there are the remains of Hellenic walls. This site agrees with the distances afforded by Scylax and the Tabular Itinerary, the former of which places Amantia at 320 stadia, and the latter at 30 Roman miles from Apollonia. Ptolemy speaks of an Aman- tia on the coast, and another town of the same name inland; whence we may perhaps infer that the latter had a port of the same name, more especially as the language of Caesar (B. C. iii. 40) would imply that Amantia was situated on the coast. Amantia was a place of some importance in the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey; and it continued to be men- tioned in the time of the Byzantine emperors. (Caes. B. C. iii. 12, 40; Cic. Phil. xi. 11 ; Leake, Ancient Greece, vol. i. p. 375, seq.) AMA'NUS (6 'A/jLav6s, rb 'Ajuavrf*'), is described by Strabo as a detached part (airoairacrna) of Taurus, and as forming the southern boundary of the plain of Cataonia. He supposes this range to branch off from the Taurus in Cilicia, at the same place where the Antitaurus branches off and takes a more north- erly direction, forming the northern boundary of Cataonia. (Strab. p. 535.) He considers the Ama- nus to extend eastward to the Euphrates and Meli- tene, where Cornmagene borders on Cappadocia. Here the range is interrupted by the Euphrates, but it recommences on the east side of the river, in a larger mass, more elevated, and more irregular in form. (Strab. p. 521.) He further adds: "the mountain range of Amanus extends (p. 535) to Ci- licia and the Syrian sea to the west from Cataonia and to the south ; and by such a division (Siao-rctcrej) it includes the whole gulf of Issus and the inter- mediate Cilician valleys towards the Taurus." This seems to be the meaning of the description of the Amanus in Strabo. Groskurd, hi his German ver- sion (vol. ii. p. 448) translates SiaoTao-ei simply by "extent" (ausdehnung}; but by attending to Strabo's words and the order of them, we seem to deduce the meaning that the double direction of the mountain includes the gulf of Issus. And this agrees with what Strabo says elsewhere, when he makes the Amanus descend to the gulf of Issus between Aegae and Issus. [AMANIDES PYLAE.] The term Amanus in Strabo then appears to be applied to the high ground which descends from the mass of Taurus to the gulf of Issus, and bounds the east side of it, and also to the highland which ex- tends in the direction already indicated to the Euphrates, which it strikes north of Samosata (So- meisdt). The Jawur Dagh appears to be the mo- dern name of at least a part of the north-eastern course of the Amanus. The branch of the Amanus which descends to the Mediterranean on the east side of the gulf of Issus is said to attain an average ele- vation of 5000 feet, and it terminates abruptly in Jebel Kheserik and Rds-el-Khdnzir. This cape seems to be Rhosus, or the Rhosicus Scopulus of Ptolemy. There was near it a town Rhosus, which Stephanus(s. v. 'Pwaos) places in Cilicia. Rhosus is now Arsus. There is another short range which is connected with Amanus, and advances right to the borders of the sea, between Ras-el-Khdnzir ani the AMANIDES PYLAE. 115 MAP OF THE GVLF OF ISSUS, AND OF THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY. 1. Ras-el-Khanzir. 2. Beilan Pass. 3. Boghras Pass. 4. Pass from Bayas. 5. Rhosus. 6. Alexandreia. 7. Kersus or Merkez. 8. Bayas. 9. Pinarus. 1 0. finins of Issus ? 1 1 . Dcmir Kapu, or Kara Kapo. 12. Aegae. 13. Pvramns. 14. S^leuceia. 15. Orontos. 16. Antiocheia. 17. Pagrae. 116 AMANUS. mouth of the Orates : this appears to be the Pieria of Strabo (p. 751). On the south-west base of this range, called Pieria, was Seleuceia, which Strabo (p. 676) considers to be the first city in Syria after leaving Cilicia. Accordingly, he considers the moun- tain range of Amanus, which terminates on the east side of the gulf of Issus, to mark the boundary be- tween Cilicia and Syria; and this is a correct view of the physical geography of the country. Cicero (ad Fam. ii. 10), who was governor of Cilicia, describes the Amanus as common to him and Bibulus, who was governor of Syria; and he calls it the water -shed of the streams, by which description he means the range which bounds the east side of the gulf of Issus. His description in another pas- sage also (ad Fam. xv. 4) shows that his Amanus is the range which has its termination in Ras-el- Khanzir. Cicero carried on a campaign against the mountaineers of this range during his govern- ment of Cilicia (B. C. 51), and took and destroyed several of their hill forts. He enumerates among them Erana (as the name stands in our present texts), which was the chief town of the Amanus, Sepyra, and Commores. He also took Pindenissus, a town of the Eleutherocilices, which was on a high point, and a place of great strength. The passes in the Amanus have been already enumerated. On the bay, between Iskenderun and Bayas, the Baiae of Strabo and the Itineraries, is the small river Merkez, supposed to be the Karsus or Kersus of Xenophon {Anab. i. 4). On the south side of this small stream is a stone wall, which crosses the narrow plain be- tween the Amanus and the sea, and terminates on the coast in a tower. There are also ruins on the north side of the Kersus; and nearer to the moun- tain there are traces of " a double wall between which the river flowed." (Ainsworth, London Geog. Journal, vol. viii.) At the head of the river Kersus is the steep pass of Boghras Beli, one of the passes of the Amanus. This description seems to agree with that of the Cilician and Syrian gates of Xeno- phon. The Cilician pass was a gateway in a wall which descended from the mountains to the sea north of the Kersus ; and the Syrian pass was a gateway in the wall which extended in the same direction to the south of the river. Cyrus marched from the Syrian pass five parasangs to Myriandrus, which may be near the site of Iskenderun. We need not suppose that the present walls near the Merkez are as old as the time of Cyrus (B. c. 401); but it seems probable that this spot, having once been chosen as a strong frontier position, would be main- tained as such. If the Kersus is properly identified with the Merkez, we must also consider it as the gates through which Alexander marched from Malms to Myriandrus, and through which he returned from Myriandrus to give battle to Darius, who had de- scended upon Issus, and thus put himself in the rear of the Greeks. (Arrian. Anab. ii. 6, 8.) From these gates Alexander retraced his march to the river Pinarus {Deli Chai), near which was fought the battle of Issus (B. c. 333). If the exact po- sition of Issus were ascertained, we might feel more certain as to the interpretations of Arrian and Cur- tius. Niebuhr (fteisen durch Syrien, &c., 1837, Anhang, p. 151), who followed the road from Is- kenderun along the east coast of the bay of Issus on his road to Constantinople, observes that Xenophon makes the march of Cyrus 15 parasangs from the Pyramus to Issus ; and he observes that it is 15 hours by the road from Bayas to the Pyramus. Cyrus AMARDUS. marched 5 parasangs from Issus to the Cilician and Syrian gates; and Iskenderun is 5 hours from Bay as. But still he thinks that Myriandrus is at Iskende- run, and that the Cilician and Syrian pass is at Merkez ; but he adds, we must then remove Issus to Demir Kapu ; and this makes a new difficulty, for it is certainly not 15 parasangs from Demir Kapu to the Pyramus. Besides, the position of Issus at Demir Kapu will not agree with the march of Alex- ander as described by Curtius ; for Alexander made two days' march from Mallus, that is, from the Py- ramus, to Castabalum; and one day's march from Castabalum to Issus. Castabalum, then, may be represented by Demir Kapu, undoubtedly the re- mains of a town, and Issus is somewhere east of it. The Peutinger Table places Issus next to Cas- tabalum, and then comes Alexandreia (ad Issum). Consequently we should look for Issus somewhere on the road between Demir Kapu and Iskenderun. Now Issus, or Issi, as Xenophon calls it, was on or near the coast (Xen. Anab. i. 4; Strab. p. 676); and Darius marched from Issus to the Pinarus to meet Alexander ; and Alexander returned from Myri- andrus, through the Pylae, to meet Darius. It seems that as the plain about the Pinarus corresponds to Arrian's description, this river must have been that where the two armies met, and that we must look for Issus a little north of the Pinarus, and near the head of the bay of Issus. Those who have ex- amined this district do not, however, seem to have exhausted the subject; nor has it been treated by the latest writers with sufficient exactness. Stephanus (s.v.'laaos) says that Issus was called Nicopolis in consequence of Alexander's victory. Strabo makes Nicopolis a different place; but his description of the spots on the bay of Issus is con- fused. Cicero, in the description of his Cilician campaign, says that he encamped at the Arae Alex- andri, near the base of the mountains. He gives no other indication of the site; but we may be sure that it was north of the Cilician Pylae, and probably it was near Issus. [G. L.] AMARDI, or MAKDI ('A/mp8of, MapSot*), a warlike Asiatic tribe. Stephanus (s. v. 'AjtiopSoi), following Strabo, places the Amardi near the Hyr- cani; and adds " there are also Persian Mardi with- out the a." Strabo (p. 514) says, " in a circle round the Caspian sea after the Hyrcani are the Amardi, &c." Under Mardi, Stephanus (quoting Apollodorus) speaks of them as an Hyrcanian tribe, who were robbers and archers. Curtius (vi. 5) describes them as bordering on Hyrcania, and inhabiting mountains which were covered with forests. They occupied therefore part of the mountain tract which forms the southern boundary of the basin of the Caspian. The name Mardi or Amardi, which we may assume to be the same, was widely spread, for we find Mardi mentioned as being in Hyrcania, and Margiana, also as a nomadic Persian tribe (Herod, i. 125 ; Strab. p. 524), and as being in Armenia (Tacit. Ann. xir. 23), and in other places. This wide distribution of the name may be partly attributed to the ignorance of the Greek and Roman writers of the geography of Asia, but not entirely. [G. L.] AMARDUS, or MARDUS ('A^pSos, MapSos, Dionys. Perieg. v. 734), a river of Media, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus in his confused descrip- tion of the Persian provinces (xxiii. 6). Ptolemy (vi. 2. 2) places it in Media, and if we take his numbers as correct, its source is in the Zagrus. The river flows north, and enters the southern coast of I AMARI LACUS. the Caspian. It appears to be the Sefid-riul, or Kizil Ozien as it is otherwise called. As Ptulcmy places the Amardi round the south coast of the Caspian and extending into the interior, we may Mippuso that they were once at least situated on and about this river. [G. L.] AMA'RI LACUS (al iriKpat \ipvtu, Strab. xvii. p. 804; Plin. vi. 29. s. 33), were a cluster of xilt- lagoon.s east of the Delta, between the city of He- ri6pi)lis and the desert of Kthain the modern Schcib. The Bitter Lakes had a slight inclination from N. to E., and their general outline resembled the leaf of the sycamore. Until the reign of Ptolemy Phila- delphus (B. c. 285 247), they were the termination of the royal canal, by which the native monarchs and the Persian kings attempted, but ineffectually, to join the Pelusiac branch of the Nile with the Red Sea. Philadelphus carried the canal through these lagoons to the city of Arsinoe. The mineral qualities of these lakes were nearly destroyed by the introduction of the M ile- water. A temple of Se- rapis stood on the northern extremity of the Bitter Lakes. "[W. B. D.] A.MA.RYNTHUS ('A/jLapwOos : Eth. 'A/iOfwrfcoj, 'Ajua/)uicu'/)Ta, the true reading, not avcKpepfrat'), there being two galleries cut, one leading to the river, and the other to the neck; there are bridges over the river, one from the city to the suburb, and another from the suburb to the neighbouring country, for at the point where this bridge is the mountain terminates, which lies above the rock." This ex- tract presents several difficulties. Groskurd, in his German version, mistakes the sense of two passages (ii. p. 499). Amasia has been often visited by Europeans, but the best description is by Hamilton (Researches in Asia Minor, cfc. vol. i. p. 366), who gives a view of the place. He explains the remark of Strabo about the 5 or 6 stadia to mean "the length of the road by which alone the summit can be reached," for owing to the steepness of the Acropolis it is necessary to ascend by a circuitous route. And this is clearly the meaning of Strabo, if we keep closely to his text. Hamilton erroneously follows Cramer (Asia Minor, vol. i. p. 302) in giving the version, " the summits have on each side a very narrow neck of land;" for the words " on each side " refer to the ascent to the " neck," as Groskurd correctly understands it. Ha- milton found two " Hellenic towers of beautiful con- struction " on the heights, which he considers to be the Kopvtpai of Strabo. But the greater part of the walls now standing are Byzantine or Turkish. In- deed we learn from Procopius (de Aedif. iii. 7), that Justinian repaired this place. Hamilton ob- serves : " the Kopv(pai were not, as I at first ima- gined, two distinct points connected by a narrow intermediate ridge, but one only, from which two narrow ridges extend, one to the north, and the other to the east, which last terminates abruptly close to the river." But Strabo clearly means two Kopvy Strabo, says that it was first founded by the AMISUS Milesians; then settled by a Cappadoclan king; and thirdly, by Athenocles and some Athenians, who changed its name to Peiraeeus. But Scymnus of Chios (Fr. v. 101) calls it a colony of Phocaea, and of prior date to Heracleia, which was probably founded about B. c. 559. Raoul-Rochette concludes, but there seems no reason for his conclusion, that this settlement by Phocaea was posterior to the Mi- loi.-m M'ttlement. (Histoiredes Colonies Grecques, vol. iii. p. 334.) However this may be, Amisus became the most flourishing Greek settlement on the north coast of the Euxine after Sinope. The time Avhrii the Athenian settlement was made is uncertain. Cramer concludes that, because Amisus is not mentioned by Herodotus or Xenophon, the date of the Athenian settlement is posterior to the time of the Anabasis ; a conclusion which is by no means necessary. Plutarch (Lucull. 19) says that it was settled by the Athenians at the time of their great- est power, and when they were masters of the sea. The place lost the name of Peiraeeus, and became a rich trading town under the kings of Pontus. Mithridates Eupator made Amisus his residence alternately with Sinope, and he added a part to the town, which was called Eupatoria (Appian. Mithrid. 78), but it was separated from the rest by a wall, and probably contained a different population from that of old Amisus. This new quarter contained the residence of the king. The strength of the place was proved by the resistance which it made to the Roman commander L. Lucullus (B. c. 71) in the Mithridatic war. (Plut. Lucull 15, &c.) The grammarian Tyrannic was one of those who fell into the hands of Lucullus when the place was captured. Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, subsequently crossed over to Amisus from Bosporus, and Amisus was again taken and cruelly dealt with. (Dion Cass. xlii. 46.) The dictator Caesar defeated Phar- naces in a battle near Zeleia (Appian. B. C. ii. 91), and restored the place to freedom. M. Antonius, says Strabo, " gave it to kings ;" but it was again rescued from a tyrant Straton, and made free, after the battle of Actiuin, by Augustus Caesar; and now, adds Strabo, it is well ordered. Strabo does not state the name of the king to whom Antonius gave Amisus. It has been assumed that it was Po- lemon I., who had the kingdom of Pontus at least as early as B. c. 36. It does not appear who Straton was. The fact of Amisus being a free city under the empire appears from the epigraph on a coin of the city, and from a letter of the younger Pliny to Trajan (x. 93), in which he calls it " libera et foederata," and speaks of it as having its own laws by the favour of Trajan. Amisus, in Strabo's time, possessed a good terri- tory, which included Themiscyra, the dwelling-place of the Amazons, and Sidene. [G. L.J AMMONITAE. 123 COIN OF AMISUS. AMITERNUM (Anirtpvov, Strab.; ' Dionys.: Amiterninus), a city of the Sabines of great antiquity. It was situated in the upper valley of the river Aternus, from which, according to Varro (L. L. v. 28), it derived its name, and at the foot of the loftiest group of the Apennines, now known as the Gran Sasso cT Italia. Its ruins are still visible at San Vittorino, a village about 5 miles N. of Aquila. According to Cato and Varro (ap. Dionys. i. 14, ii. 49), this elevated and rugged mountain district was the original dwelling-place of the Sabines, from whence they first began to turn their arms against the Aborigines in the neighbour- hood of Reate. Virgil also mentions Amiternum among the most powerful cities of the Sabines : and both Strabo and Pliny enumerate it among the cities still inhabited by that people. Ptolemy, on the contrary, assigns it to the Vestini, whose territory it must certainly have adjoined. (Virg. Aen. vii. 710; Sil. Ital. viii. 416; Strab. v. p. 228; Plin. iii. 12. s. 17; Ptol. iii. 1. 59.) Livy speaks of Ami- ternum as captured by the Romans in B. c. 293 from the Samnites (x. 39), but it seems impossible that the Sabine city can be the one meant; and either the name is corrupt, or there must have been some obscure place of the. same name in Samnium. Strabo speaks of it as having suffered severely from the Social and Civil Wars, and being in his time much decayed ; but it was subsequently recolonised, probably in the time of Augustus (Lib. Colon, p. 228 ; Zumpt, de Coloniis, p. 356. not.), and be- came a place of considerable importance under the Roman empire, as is proved by the existing ruins, among which those of the amphitheatre are the most conspicuous. These are situated in the broad and level valley of the Aternus, at the foot of the hill on which stands the village of S. Vittorino ; but some remains of polygonal walls are said to exist on that hill, which probably belong to an earlier period, and to the ancient Sabine city. It continued to be an episcopal see as late as the eleventh century, but its complete decline dates from the foundation of the neighbouring city of Aquila by the emperor Frede- ric II., who removed thither the inhabitants of Ami- ternum, as well as several other neighbouring towns. (Romanelli, vol. iii. p. 330; Giustiniani, Diz. Geogr. vol. i. p. 230; Craven, Abruzzi, vol. i. pp 217 219.) Numerous inscriptions have been dis- covered there, of which the most important is a fragment of an ancient calendar, which is one of the most valuable relics of the kind that have been pre- served to us. It has been repeatedly published; among others, by Foggini (Fast. Rom. Reliquiae, Romae, 1779), and by Orelli (Inscr. vol. ii. c. 22). Amiternum was the birthplace of the historian Sallust. (Hieron. Chron.) [E. H. B.] AMMONI'TAE ('AfyMfirai,LXX. and Joseph.), the descendants of Ben-ammi, the son of Lot by his incestuous connection with his younger daughter (Gen. xix. 38). They exterminated the Zamzum- mims and occupied their country (Deut. ii. 20, 21), which lay to the north of Moab between the Arnon (Mojeb) and the Jabbok (Zer/fca), the eastern part of the district now called Belka. [AMORITES]. Their country was not possessed by the Israelites (Deut. ii. 19), but was conterminous with the tribe of Gad. (Joshua, xiii. 25, properly explained by Reland, Palaest. p. 105.) Their capital was Rabbath or Rabbah, afterwards called PHILADELPHIA, now Amman. They were constantly engaged in con- federations with other Bedouin tribes against the Israelites (Ps. Ixxxiii. 6 8), and were subdued by Jephthah (Judges xi.), Saul (1 Sam. xi., xiv. 47), 124 AMMONIUM. David (2 Sam. viii. 12, x. xi. 1. xii. 26, &c.), Je- hoshaphat (2 Chron. xx.), Uzziah (ib. xxvi. 8), and Jotham (xxvii. 5), and subsequently by Nebuchad- nezzar. (Jerem. xxvii. l,&c.) They renewed their opposition to the Jews after the captivity (Nehem. iv. 3, 7, 8), and were again conquered by Judas Maccabaeus. (1 Mace. v. 6, &c.) Justin Martyr speaks of a great multitude of Ammonites existing in his day (Dial p. 272); but Origen shortly after speaks of the name as being merged in the common appellation of Arabs, under which the Idumaeans and the Moabites were comprehended together with the Ishmaelites and Joctanites. (Grig, in Jobum, lib. i.) [G. W.j AMMO'NIUM. [OASIS.] A'MNIAS (Ajjivias, "A,ui>eios), a river in Pontus. In the broad plain on the banks of this stream the generals of Mithridates defeated Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, and the ally of the Komans, B. c. 88. (Appian. Mithridat. c. 18; Strab. p. 562.) The plain through which the river flowed is called by Strabo Domanitis. Hamilton (Researches, &c. vol. i. p. 362) identifies the Amnias with an affluent of the Halys, now called Costambol Chai, and some- times Giaour Irmak. It appears that the river is also called Kara Su. [G. L.] AMNI'SUS ('AM"wf ia, and by Boblaye on the mountain called AMPHIPOLIS. i ::, (Paus. iv. 5. 9; Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 461 ; Boblaye, Recherches, p. 109.) AMPHI'ALK. [AKGAU..OS.] AMl'HICAEA or AMPHICLEIA ('A^feoia, Herod., Steph. B.; 'A/u^tVAeia, Pans.: Eth. 'Afj.- (piKaitvs, 'AfjKpiKhfifvs), a town in the N. of Phocis, distant 60 stadia from Lilaea, and 15 stadia from Tithronium. It was destroyed by the army of Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. Although Herodo- tus calls it Amphicaea, following the most ancient traditions, the Amphictyons gave it the name of Amphicleia in their decree respecting rebuilding the town. It also bore for some time the name of OPHI- , in consequence of a legend, which Pausanias relates. The place was celebrated in the time of Pausanias for the worship of Dionysus, to which an inscription refers, found at Dhadhi, the site of the ancient town. (Herod, viii. 33; Paus. x. 3. 2, x. 33. 9, seq.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. pp. 75, 86.) AMPHI'DOLI (A/j.oAAo, Strab. p. 475; Plin. iv. 20; 'A/i^aAioi/, Steph. B. s. t?.), a town in the N. of Crete, situated on the bay named after it ('A^t^aAijs KoAiros, Ptol. iii. 17. 7), which corresponds, according to some, to the bay of Ar- miro, and, according to others, to the bay of Suda. AMPHI'POLIS (A,u'nro\is : Eth. 'A^iiro- ATTJS, Amphipolites : Adj. Amphipolitanns, Just. xiv. sub fin.), a town in Macedonia, situated upon 126 AMPHIPOLIS. an eminence on the left or eastern bank of the Stry- mon, just below its egress from the lake Cercinitis at the distance of 25 stadia, or about three miles from 'the sea. (Thuc. iv. 102.) The Strymon flowed almost round the town, whence its name Amphi-polis. Its position is one of the most im- portant in this part of Greece. It stands in a pass, which traverses tne mountains bordering the Stry- monic gulf; and it commands the only easy com- munication from the coast of that gulf into the great Macedonian plains. In its vicinity were the gold and silver mines of Mount Pangaeus, and large forests of ship-timber. It was originally called Ennea Hodoi, or " Nine-Ways " ('Ewe'a <55of), from the many roads which met at this place ; and it be- longed to the Edonians, a Thracian people. Aris- tagoras of Miletus first attempted to colonize it, but was cut off with his followers by the Edonians, B. c. 497. (Thuc. I.e.-, Herod, v. 126.) The next at- tempt was made by the Athenians, with a body of 1 0,000 colonists, consisting of Athenian citizens and allies; but they met with the same fate as Aris- tagoras, and were all destroyed by the Thracians at Drabescus, B. c. 465. (Thuc. i. 100, iv. 102; Herod, ix. 75.) So valuable, however, was the site, that the Athenians sent out another colony in B. c. 437 under Agnon, the son of Nicias, who drove the Thracians out of Nine- Ways, and founded the city, to which he gave the name of Amphipolis. On three sides the city was defended by the Strymon ; on the other side Agnon built a wall across, extend- ing from one part of the river to the other. South of the town was a bridge, which formed the great means of communication between Macedonia and Thrace. The following plan will illustrate the preceding account. (Thuc. iv. 102.) PLAN OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF AMPHIPOLIS. 1. Site of Amphipolis. 2. Site of Eion. 3. Ridge connecting Amphipolis with Mt. Pangaeus. 4. Long Wall of Amphipolis: the three marks across indicate the gates. 5. Palisade (o-raupw^a) connecting the Long Wall with the bridge over the Strymon. 6. Lake Cercinitis. 7. Mt. Cerdyiium. 8. Mt. Pangaeus. AMPHIPOLIS. Amphipolis soon became an important city, and was regarded by the Athenians as the jewel of their empire. In B. c. 424 it surrendered to the Lace- daemonian general Brasidas, without offering any resistance. The historian Thucydides, who com- manded the Athenian fleet off the coast, arrived in time from the island of Thasos to save Eion, the port of Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, but too late to prevent Amphipolis itself from falling into the hands of Brasidas. (Thuc. iv. 103 107.) The loss of Amphipolis caused both indignation and alarm at Athens, and led to the banishment of Thucydides. In B. c. 422 the Athenians sent a large force, under the command of Cleon, to attempt the recovery of the city. This expedition completely failed; the Athenians were defeated with consider- able loss, but Brasidas as well as Cleon fell in the battle. The operations of the two commanders are detailed at length by Thucydides, and his account is illustrated by the masterly narrative of Grote. (Thuc. v. 6 11; Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. vi. p. 634, seq.) From this time Amphipolis continued independent of Athens. According to the treaty made between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians in B. c. 421, it was to have been restored to Athens ; but its in- habitants refused to surrender to their former mas- ters, and the Lacedaemonians were unable to compel them to do so, even if they had been so inclined. Amphipolis afterwards became closely allied with Olynthus, and with the assistance of the latter was able to defeat the attempts of the Athenians under Timotheus to reduce the place in B. c. 360. Philip, upon his accession (359) declared Amphipolis a free city; but in the following year (358) he took the place by assault, and annexed it permanently to his dominions. It continued to belong to the Mace- donians, till the conquest of their country by the Romans in B. c. 1 68. The Romans made it a free city, and the capital of the first of the four districts, into which they divided Macedonia. (Dem. in Aristocr. p. 669; Diod. xvi. 3. 8; Liv. xlv. 29; Plin. iv. 10.) The deity chiefly worshipped at Amphipolis ap- pears to have been Artemis Tauropolos or Brauronia (Diod. xviii. 4; Liv. xliv. 44), whose head fre- quently appears on the coins of the city, and the ruins of whose temple in the first century of the Christian era are mentioned in an epigram of An- tipater of Thessalonica. (Anth. Pal. vol. i. no. 705.) The most celebrated of the natives of Amphipolis was the grammarian Zoilus. Amphipolis was situated on the Via Egnatia. It has been usually stated, on the authority of an anonymous Greek geographer, that it was called Chrysopolis under the Byzantine empire ; but Tafel has clearly shown, hi the works cited below, that this is a mistake, and that Chrysopolis and Am- phipolis were two different places. Tafel has also pointed out that in the middle ages Amphipolis was ailed Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keui, or " New- Town." There are still a few remains of the ancient city; and both Leake and Cousinery found among ;hem a curious Greek inscription, written in the [onic dialect, containing a sentence of banishment against two of their citizens, Philo and Strategies. The latter is the name of one of the two envoys sent from Amphipolis to Athens to request the assistance of the latter against Philip, and he is therefore probably the same person as the Stratocles AMPIIISSA. mentioned in the inscription. (Tafel, Thessalonica, p. 498, seq., De Via Egnatia, Pars Orient, p. 9 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 181, seq.; Covusinery, Voyage dans le Macedoine, vol. i. p. 128.) AMYCLAE 127 COIN OF AMPHirOLIS. AMPHISSA ('A^io-o-a: Eth. 'A/t^Knralbs, 'A/x- (pHTaevs, Amphissensis : Adj. Amphissius: Salona), the chief town of the Locri Ozolae, situated in a pass at the head of the Crissaean plain, and sur- rounded by mountains, from which circumstance it is said to have derived its name. (Steph. B. s. v.) Pausanias (x. 38. 4) places it at the distance of 120 stadia from Delphi, and Aeschines (in Ctesiph. p. 71) at 60 stadia: the latter statement is the cor- rect one, since we learn from modern travellers that the real distance between the two towns is 7 miles. According to tradition, Amphissa was called after a nymph of this name, the daughter of Macar and granddaughter of Aeolus, who was beloved by Apollo. (Pans. /. c.) On the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, many of the Locrians removed to Amphissa. (Herod. viii. 32.) At a later period the Amphictyons de- clared war against the town, because its inhabitants had dared to cultivate the Crissaean plain, which was sacred to the god, and had molested the pilgrims who had come to consult the oracle at Delphi. The decree by which war was declared against the Am- phissians was moved by Aeschines, the Athenian Pylagoras, at the Amphictyonic Council. The Am- phictyons entrusted the conduct of the war to Philip of Macedon, who took Amphissa, and razed it to the ground, B.C. 338. (Aesch. in Ctesiph. p. 71, seq.; Strab. p. 419.) The city, however, was after- wards rebuilt, and was sufficiently populous in B. c. 279 to supply 400 hoplites in the war against Bren- nus. (Paus. x. 23. 1.) It was besieged by the Romans in B.C. 190, when the inhabitants took re- fuge hi the citadel, which was deemed impregnable. (Liv. xxxvii. 5, 6.) When Augustus founded Ni- copolis after the battle of Actium, a great many Aetolians, to escape being removed to the new city, took up their abode in Amphissa, which was thus reckoned an Aetolian city in the time of Pausanias (x. 38. 4). This writer describes it as a flourish- ing place, and well adorned with public buildings. It occupied the site of the modern Salona, where the walls of the ancient acropolis are almost the only remains of the ancient city. (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 588, seq.) AMPHI'TROPE. [ATTICA.] AMPHRY'SUS ("Aufpvaos). 1. A town of Phocis. See AMBRYSUS. 2. A small river in Thessaly, rising in Mt. Othrys, and flowing near Alus into the Pagasaean gulf. It is celebrated in mythology as the river on the banks of which Apollo fed the flocks of king Admetus. (Strab. pp. 433, 435; Apoll. Rhod. i. 54; Virg. Georg. iii. 2; Ov. Met. i. 580, vii. 229; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 337.) Hence the ad- jective Amphrysius is used in reference to Apollo. Thus Virgil (A en. vi. 398) calls the Sibyl Am- phi- i/.iia vales. Statius (Silv. i. 4. 105) uses the ml jcdivo Amphrysiacus in the same sense. 'AMPSAGA ('A/iifrtfrya, Ptol.: Wad el Keblr, or Sufjimar, and higher up Wadi Roumel}, one of the chief rivers of N. Africa, not large, but important as having l>vn (in its lower course) the boundary be- tween Mauretania and Numidia, according to the later extent of those regions (see the articles and AFRICA). It is composed of several streams, rising at different points in the Lesser Atlas, and forming two chief branches, which unite in 36 35' N. lat., and about 6 10' E. long., and then flow N. into the Mediterranean, W. of the promontory Tretum (Ras Seba Rous, i. e. Seven Capes). The upper course of the Ampsaga is the eastern of these two rivers ( W. Roumel), which flows past Constantineh, the ancient Cirta ; whence the Ampsaga was called Fluvius Cirtensis (Viet, Vit. de Pers. Vand. 2); the Arabs still call it the River of Constantineh, as well as Wadi Roumel. This branch is formed by several streams, which converge to a point a little above Constantineh. Pliny (v. 2. s. 1) places the mouth of the Ampsaga 222 Roman miles E. of Caesarea. (This is the true reading, not, as in the common text, cccxxii., see Sillig.) Ptolemy (iv. 3. 20) places it much too far E. A town, Tucca, at its mouth, is mentioned by Pliny only; its mouth still forms a small port, Marsa Zeitoun. (Shaw, pp. 92, 93, folio ed. Oxf. 1738, Exploration Scientifique de VAlgerie, vol. vii. p. 357.) [P. S.] AMPSANCTI or AMSANCT1 VALLIS, a ce- lebrated valley and small sulphureous lake in the heart of the Apennines, in the country of the Hir- pinL, about 10 miles SE. of Aeculanum. The fine description of it given by Virgil (Aen. vii. 563 572) is familiar to all scholars, and its pestilential vapours are also noticed by Claudian (De Rapt. Pros. ii. 349). It has been strangely confounded by some geographers with the lake of Cutiliae near Reate ; but Servius, in his note on the passage, dis- tinctly tells us that it was among the Hirpini, and this statement is confirmed both by Cicero and Pliny. (Cic. de Div. i. 36; Plin. ii. 93.) The spot is now called Le Mofete, a name evidently derived from Mephitis, to whom, as we learn from Pliny, a temple was consecrated on the site : it has been visited by several recent travellers, whose descriptions agree perfectly with that of Virgil; but the dark woods with which it was previously surrounded have lately been cut down. So strong are the sulphureous vapours that it gives forth, that not only men and animals who have incautiously approached, but even birds have been suffocated by them, when crossing the valley in their flight. It is about 4 miles dis- tant from the modern town of Frigento. (Roma- nelli, vol. ii. p. 351 ; Swinburne's Travels, vol. i. p. 128; Craven's A bruzzi, vol. ii. p. 218; Daubeny, on Volcanoes, p. 191.) [E.H.B.] AMYCLAE ('A/iwcAcu : Eth. 'A^uKAaibs, 'A,uw- K\aifvs, Amyclaeus), an ancient town of Laconia, situated on the right or eastern bank of the Eurotas, 20 stadia S. of Sparta, in a district remarkable for the abundance of its trees and its fertility. (Pol. v. 19 ; Liv. xxxiv. 28.) Amyclae was one of the most celebrated cities of Peloponnesus in the heroic age. It is said to have been founded by the Lacedae- monian king Amyclas, the father of Hyacinthus, and to have been the abode of Tyndarus, and of Castor and Pollux, who are hence called Amydaei Fratres. (Paus. iii. 1. 3; Stat. Theb. vii. 413.) Amyclae is mentioned by Honier (77. ii. 584), and it con- 128 AMYCLAE. tinned to maintain its independence as an Achaean town long after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. According to the common tradition, which represented the conquest of Peloponnesus as effected in one generation by the descendants of Hercules, Amyclae was given by the Dorians to Philonomus, as a reward for his having betrayed to them his native city Sparta. Philonomus is further said to have peopled the town with colonists from Imbros and Lemnos; but there can be no doubt that the ancient Achaean population maintained themselves in the place independent of Sparta for many genera- tions. It was only shortly before the first Messenian war that the town was conquered by the Spartan king Teleclus. (Strab. p. 364; Conon, 36; Paus. iii. 2. 6.) The tale ran, that the inhabitants of Amyclae had been so often alarmed by false reports of the approach of the enemy, that they passed a law that no one should mention the subject; and accordingly, when the Spartans at last came, and no one dared to announce their approach, " Amyclae perished through silence : " hence arose the proverb Amyclis ipsis taciturnior. (Serv. ad Virg. Aen. x. 564.) After its capture by the Lacedaemonians Amyclae became a village, and was only memorable by the festival of the Hyacinthia celebrated at the place annually, and by the temple and colossal statue of Apollo, who was hence called Amyclaeus. The throne on which this statue was placed was a cele- brated work of art, and was constructed by Bathycles of Magnesia. It was crowned by a great number of bas-reliefs, of which an account is given by Pau- sanias (iii. 18. 9, seq.; Diet, of Biogr. art. Ba- thycles). The site of Amyclae is usually placed at Skla- vokhori, where the name of Amyclae has been found on inscriptions in the walls. But this place is situ- ated nearly 6 miles from Sparta, or more than double the distance mentioned by Polybius. Moreover, there is every probability that Sklavokhori is a Sclavonian town not more ancient than the 14th century; and becoming a place of importance, some of its buildings were erected with the rains of Amy- clae. Accordingly Leake supposes Amyclae to have been situated between Sklavokhori and Sparta, on the hill of Aghia Kyriaki, half a mile from the Eurotas. At this place Leake discovered, on an im- perfect inscription, the letters AMT following a proper name, and leaving little doubt that the in- complete word was AMTKAAIOT. (Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 135, seq., Peloponnesiaca, p. 162.) AMYCLAE, a city on the coast of Campania, be- tween Tarracina and Caieta, which had ceased to exist in the time of Pliny, but had left the name of Sinus Amyclanus to the part of the coast on which it was situated. (Plin. H. N. xiv. 8 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 59.) Its foundation was ascribed to a band of La- conians who had emigrated from the city of the same name near Sparta; and a strange story is told by Pliny and Servius of the inhabitants having been compelled to abandon it by the swarms of serpents with which they were infested. (Plin. H. N. iii. 5. s. 9, viii. 29. s. 43; Serv. ad Aen. x. 564.) Other writers refer to this city the legend commonly related of the destruction cf the Laconian Amyclae, in conse- quence of the silence of its inhabitants; and the epi- thet applied to it by Virgil of tacitae Amyclae ap- pears to favour this view. (Virg. Aen. x. 564; Sil. Ital. viii. 530.) The exact site is unknown, but it must have been close to the marshes below Fundi; whence Martial terms it " Amyclae Fundanae" (:dii. ANACTORIUM. 115). In the immediate neighbourhood, but on a rocky promontory projecting into the sea, was a villa of Tiberius, called SPELUNCAE, from the natural caverns hi the rock, in one of which the emperor nearly lost his life by the falling in of the roof, while he was supping there with a party of friends. (Tac. Ann.iv. 59; Suet. Tib. 39; Plin. iii. 5, s. 9.) The ancient name of the locality is retained, with little variation, by the modern village of Sperlonga, about 8 miles W. of Gaeta, where the grottoes in the rock are still visible, with some remains of their ancient, architectural decorations. (Craven's Abruzzi, vol. i. p. 73.) [E H.B.] A'MYDON ('AjUuSciSi'), a town in Macedonia on the Axius, from which Pyraechmes led the Paeomans to the assistance of Troy. The place is called Aby- don by Suidas and Stephanus B. (Horn. II. ii. 849; comp. Strab. p. 330; Juv. iii. 69.) AMYMO'NE. [LERNA.] A'MYRUS ("Ajuupos: Eth. 'A/zupeus), a town in Thessaly, situated on a river of the same name falling into the lake Boebeis. It is mentioned by Hesiod as the " vine-bearing Amyrus." The sur- rounding country is called the Amyric plain (ri> 'Afj.vptKbv -rreSiov) by Polybius. Leake supposes the ruins at Kastri to represent Amyrus. (Hes. ap Strab. p. 442, and Steph. B. s. v.; Schol. ad Apoll Rhod. i. 596; Val. Flacc. ii. 11; Pol. v. 99; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 447.) AMYSTIS ("A/iuo-m), an Indian river, a tribu- tary of the Ganges, flowing past a city called Cata- dupae (Arrian. Ind. 4), which Mannert supposes, from its name, to have stood at the falls of the Upper Ganges, on the site of the modern Hurdwar, which would make the Amystis the Patterea (Man- nert, vol. v. pt. 1. p. 70). [P. S.] AMY'ZON ('Ajwu^j/), an inconsiderable town of Caria. (Strab. p. 658.) The ruins of the citadel and walls exist on the east side of Mount Latmus, on the road from Bafi to Tchisme. The place is identified by an inscription. (Leake, Asia Minor, p. 238.) [G. L.] ANABURA, a city of Phrygia (Liv. xxxviii 15) which lay on the route of the consul Cn. Manlius from Synnada to the sources of the Alander [ALAN- DER] ; probably Kirk Hinn (Hamilton). [G. L.] ANACAEA. [ArncA.] ANACTO'RIUM('Ai'a/cTnit:.r): Eth.'AvaQaios: Anaphe, Namfi or Namjio), one of the Sporades, a small island in the south of the Grecian Archipelago, E. of Thera. It is said to have been originally called Membliarus from the son of Cadmus of this name, who came to the island in search of Europa. It was celebrated for the temple of Apollo Aegletes, the foundation of which was ascribed to the Argonauts, because Apollo had showed them the island as a place of refuge when they were overtaken by a storm. (Orpheus, Argon. 1363, seq. ; Apollod. i. 9. 26 ; Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1706, seq. ; Conon, 49 ; Strab. p. 484; Steph. B. s.v.; Plin. ii. 87, iv. 12; Ov.Met. viL 461.) There are still considerable remains of this temple on the eastern side of the island, and also of the ancient city, which was situated nearly hi the centre of Anaphe on the summit of a hill. Several important inscriptions have been discovered in this place, of which an account is given by Ross, in the work cited below. The island is mountainous, of little fertility, and still worse cultivated. It contains a vast number of partridges, with which it abounded in antiquity also. Athenaeus relates (p. 400) that a native of Astypalaea let loose a brace of these birds upon Anaphe, where they multiplied so rapidly that the inhabitants were almost obliged to abandon the island in consequence. (Tournefort, Voyage, &c., vol. i. p. 212, seq.; Ross, Ueber Anaphe und Ana- phdische Inschriften, in the Transactions of the Munich Academy for 1838, p. 401, seq. ; Ross, Reisen auf den Griechischen Inseln, vol. i. p. 401, seq.; Bockh, Corp. Inscr. No. 2477, seq.) ANAPHLYSTUS ('A^Avcr-ros : Eth. 'Ava- \U(TTIOS: Andvyso), a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Antiochis, on the W. coast of Attica, opposite the island of Eleussa, and a little N. of the promontory of Sunium. It was a place of some im- portance. Xenophon recommended the erection of a fortress here for the protection of the mines of Sunium. (Herod, iv. 99; Scylax, p. 21; Xen. de Vectig. 4. 43; Strab. p. 398; Leake, Demi, p. 59.) ANA'PUS ("Arcm-os). 1, (Anapo), one of the most celebrated and considerable rivers of Sicily, which rises about a mile from the modern town ofBus- cemi, not far from the site of Acrae; and flows into the great harbour of Syracuse. About three quarters of a mile from its mouth, and just at the foot of the hill on which stood the Olympieium, it receives the waters of the Cyane. Its banks for a considerable distance from its mouth are bordered by marshes, which rendered them at all times unhealthy; and the fevers and pestilence thus generated were among the chief causes of disaster to the Athenians, and still more to the Carthaginians, during the several sieges of Syracuse. But above these marshes the valley through which it flows is one of great beauty, and the waters of the Anapus itself are extremely limpid and clear, and of great depth. Like many rivers in a limestone country it rises all at once with a considerable volume of water, which is, however, nearly doubled by the accession of the Cyane. The tutelary divinity of the stream was worshipped by the Syracusans under the form of a young man (Ael. V. H. ii. 33), who was regarded as the hus- band of the nymph Cyane. (Ovid. Met. v. 416.) The river is now commonly known as the Alfeo, evidently from a misconception of the story of Al- pheus and Arethusa; but is also called and marked ANAS. on all maps as the Anapo. (Thuc. vi. 96, vii. 78; Theocr. i. 68; Plut. Dion. 27, Timol. 21; Liv. xxiv. 36; Ovid. Ex Pont. ii. 26; Vib. Seq. p. 4; Oberlin, ad foe.; Fazell. iv. 1, p. 196.) It is probable that the PALUS LYSIMELEIA (?) Xifj-vt) ^ AvaifjLfXfia /caAoujueV^) mentioned by Thu- cydides (vii. 53), was a part of the marshes formed by the Anapus near its mouth. A marshy or stag- nant pool of some extent still exists between the site of the Neapolis of Syracuse and the mouth of the river, to which the name may with some pro- bability be assigned. 2. A river falling into the Achelous, 80 stadia S of Stratus. [ACHELOUS.] [E.H.B.] ANA'REI MONTES (TCI 'Ava'pea opy), a range of mountains in " Scythia intra Imaum," is one of the western branches of the Altai, not far from the sources of the Ob or Irtish. Ptolemy places in their neighbourhood a people called Anarei. (Ptol. vi. 14. 8, 12, 13.) ANARI'ACAE ('Avapidxai, Strab.; Anariaci, Plin.; in Ptol. vi. 2. 5, erroneously 'A/j.apiditai'), a people on the southern side of the Caspian Sea, neighbours of the Mardi or Amardi. Their city was called Anariaca (AvapidKi)), and possessed an oracle, which communicated the divine will to per- sons who slept in the temple. (Strab. xi. pp. 508, 514 ; Plin. vi. 16. s. 18 ; Solin. 51 ; Steph. B. s. v.) ANARTES (Caes. B. G. vi. 25), ANARTI (^Avaprot, Ptol. iii. 8. 5), a people of Dacia, on the N. side of the Tibiscus (Theiss). Caesar de- fines the extent of the Hercynia Silva to the E. as ad fines Dacorum et Anartium. [P. S.] ANAS (<5"Aj/as: Guadiana, i.e. Wadi-Ana, river Anas, Arab.), an important river of Hispania, described by Strabo (iii. pp. 139, foil.) as rising in the eastern part of the peninsula, like the Tagus and the Baetis (Guadalquivir}, between which it flows, all three having the same general direction, from E. to W., inclining to the S. ; the Anas is the smallest of the three (comp. p. 162). It divided the country inhabited by the Celts and Lusitanians, who had been removed by the Romans to the S. side of the Tagus, and higher up by the Carpetani, Oretani, and Vettones, from the rich lands of Baetica or Turdetania. It fell into the Atlantic by two mouths, both navigable, between Gades (Cadiz), and the Sacred Promontory (C. St. Vin- cent'). It was only navigable a short way up, and that for small vessels (p. 142). Strabo further quotes Polybius as placing the sources of the Anas and the Baetis in Celtiberia (p. 148). Pliny (iii. 1. s. 2) gives a more exact description of the origin and peculiar character of the Anas. It rises in the territory of Laminium ; and, at one time diffused into marshes, at another retiring into a narrow channel, or entirely hid in a subterraneous course, and exulting in being born again and again, it falls into the Atlantic Ocean, after forming, in its lower course, the boundary between Lusitania and Baetica. (Comp. iv. 21. s. 35; Mela, ii. I. 3, iii. 1. 3). The Antonine Itinerary (p. 446) places the source of the Anas (caput fluminis Anae) 7 M. P. from Laminium, on the road to Caesai-augusta. The source is close to the village of Osa la Montiel, in La Mancha, at the foot of one of the northern spurs of the Sierra Morena, in about 39 N. lat. and 2 45' W. long. The river originates in a marsh, from a series of small lakes called Lagunas de Ruy- dera. After a course of about 7 miles, it disap- pears and runs underground for 12 miles, bursting \ ANATHO. forth again, near Daymiel, in the small lakes called Los Ojos de Guadiana (the eyes of the Guadiana). After receiving the considerable river Giguda from the N., it runs westward through La Mancha and Estremadura, as far as Badajoz, where it turns to the S., and falls at last into the Atlantic by Aya- monte, the other mouth mentioned by Strabo, and which appears to have been at Lepe, being long since closed. The valley of the Guadiana forms the S. part of the great central table-land of Spain, and is bounded on the N. by the Moun- tain* of Toledo, and the rest of that chain, and on the S. by the Sierra Morena. Its whole course is above 450 miles, of which not much above 30 are navigable, and that only by small flat- bottomed barges. Its scarcity of water is easily ac- counted for by the little rain that falls on the table- land. Its numerous tributaries (flowing chiefly from the Sierra Moreno) are inconsiderable streams ; the only one of them mentioned by ancient authors is the Adrus (Albaragena), which falls into it opposite Badajoz. Some derive the name Anas from the Semitic verb (Hanas, Punic; Hanasa, Arab.) signifying to appear and disappear, refer- ring to its subterraneous course; which may or may not be right. (Ford, Handbook of Spain, p. 83.) [P.S.] ANATHO (AvaQc!) : AnaK), as the name appears in Isidorus of Charax. It is Anathan in Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiv. 1), and Bethauna (BfOavva, per- haps Beth Ana) in Ptolemy (v. 18. 6). D'Anville (L'Euphrate, p. 62) observes that the place which Zosimus (iii. 14) calls Phathusae, in his account of Julian's Persian campaign (A. D. 363), and fixes about the position of Anah, is nowhere else men- tioned. It seems, however, to be the same place as Anah, or near it. Anah is on the Euphrates, north of Hit, in a part where there are eight successive islands (about 345 N.L.). Anah itself occupies a " fringe of soil on the right bank of the river, between a low ridge of rock and the swift-flowing waters." (London Geog. Journ. vol. vii. p. 427.) This place was an important position for commerce hi ancient times, and probably on the line of a caravan route. When Julian was encamped before Anatho, one of the hurricanes that sometimes occur in these parts threw down his tents. The emperor took and burnt Anatho. Tavernier (Travels in Turkey and Persia, iii. 6) describes the country around Anah as well culti- vated; and the place as being on both sides of the river, which has an island in the middle. It is a pleasant and fertile spot, in the midst of a desert. Kauwolf, whose travels were published in 1582, 1583, speaks of the olive, citron, orange, and other fruits growing there. The island of Anah is covered with ruins, which also extend for two miles further along the left bank of the river. The place is about 313 miles below Bir, and 440 above Hillah, the site of Babylon, following the course of the river. (London Geog. Journ. vol. iii. p. 232.) Tavernier makes it four days' journey from Bagdad to Anah. [G. L.J ANATIS. [ASAMA.] ANAUA C&vava), a salt lake in the southern part of Phrygia, which Xerxes passed on his march from Celaenae to Colossae. (Herod, vii. 30.) There was a tow T n also called Anaua on or near the lake. This is the lake of Chardak, or Hadji Tons Ghhieul, as it is sometimes called. This lake is nearly dry in summer, at which season there is an incrustation of salt on the mud. The salt is collected now, as it ANAZARBUS. 131 was in former days, and supplies the neighbourhood and remoter parts. Arrian (Anab. i. 29) describes, under the name of As( -tiiia, a salt lake which Alexander passed on his march from Pisidia to Celaenae ; and the description corresponds to that of Lake Chardak so far as its sah'ne properties. Leake (Asia Minor, p. 146) takes the Ascania of Arrian to be the lake Burdur or Buldur, which is some distance SE. of Chardak. There is nothing in Arrian to determine this ques- tion. Leake (p. 150) finds a discrepancy between Arrian and Strabo as to the distance between Saga- lassus and Celaenae (Apameia). Strabo (p. 569) makes it one day's journey, " whereas Arrian relates that Alexander was five days in marching from Sa- galassus to Celaenae, passing by the lake Ascania," But this is a mistake. Arrian does not say that he was five days in marching from Sagalassus to Celaenae. However, he does make Alexander pass by a lake from which the inhabitants collect salt, and Buldur has been supposed to be the lake, because it lies on the direct road from Sagalassus to Celaenae. But this difficulty is removed by ob- serving that Arrian does not say that Alexander marched from Sagalassus to Celaenae, but from the country of the Pisidians; and so he may have passed by Anaua. Hamilton observes (Researches, &c. vol. i. p. 496), that Buldur is only slightly brackish, whereas Chardak exactly corresponds to Arrian's description (p. 504). P. Lucas ( Voyage, &c. i. book iv. 2) describes Lake Bondur, as he calls it, as having water too bitter for fish to live in, and as abounding in wild-fowl. In justification of the opinions here expressed, it may be remarked, that the " five days " of Alex- ander from Sagalassus to Celaenae have been repeated and adopted by several writers, and thus the ques- tion has not been truly stated. [G. L.] ANAUEUS ("Avavpos), a small river in Magne- sia, in Thessaly, flowing past lolcos into the Paga- saean gulf, in which Jason is said to have lost one of his sandals. (Apoll. Ehod. i. 8 ; Simonid. ap. AtJien. iv. p. 172, e ; Apollod. i. 9. 16 ; Strab. ix. p. 436 ; Lucan, vi. 370 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 381.) ANAZAKBUS or -A ('Avdapos, 'AwJCapga : Eth. 'Amfcpgeus, Anazarbenus), a city of CUicia, so called, according to Stephanus, either from an adjacent mountain of the same name, or from the founder, Anazarbus. It was situated on the Py- ramus, and 1 1 miles from Mopsuestia, according to the Peutinger Table. Suidas (s. v. KuiVSct) says that the original name of the place was Cyinda or Quinda; that it was next called Diocaesarea; and (s.v. 'Avd- Capgos) that having been destroyed by an earth- quake, the emperor Nerva sent thither one Anazarbus, a man of senatorial rank, who rebuilt the city, and gave to it his own name. All this cannot be true, as Valesius (Amm. Marc. xiv. 8) remarks, for it was called Anazarbus in Pliny's time (v. 27). Dios- corides is called a native of Anazarbus ; but the period of Dioscorides is not certain. Its later name was Caesarea ad Anazarbum, and there are many medals of the place in which it is both named Anazarbus and Caesarea at or under Anazarbus. On the division of Cilicia it became the chief place of Cilicia Secunda, with the title of Metropolis. It suffered dreadfully from an earth- quake both in the time of Justinian, and, still more, in the reign of his successor Justin. The site of Anazarbus, which is said to be named K 2 132 ANCALITES. Anawasy or Amnasy, is described (London Geoff. Journ. vol. vii. p. 42 1 ), but without any exact descrip- tion of its position, as containing ruins "backed by an isolated mountain, bearing a castle of various archi- tecture." It seems not unlikely that this mountain may be Cyinda, which, in the time of Alexander and his successors, was a deposit for treasure. (Strab. p. 672; Died, xviii. 62, xix. 56; Plut. Eumen. c. 13.) Strabo, indeed, places Cyinda above Anchiale; but as he does not mention Anazarbus, this is no great difficulty; and besides this, his geography of Cilicia is not very exact. If Pococke's account of the Py- ramus at Anawasy being called Quinda is true, this is some confirmation of the hill of Anazarbus being Quinda. It seems probable enough that Quinda is an old name, which might be applied to the hill fort, even after Anazarbus became a city of some import- ance. An old traveller (Willebrand v. Oldenburg), quoted by Forbiger, found, at a place called Naversa (manifestly a corruption of Anazarbus) or Anawasy, considerable remains of an old town, at the distance of 8 German miles from Sis. [G. L.] ANCALITES, a people in Britain, inhabiting the hundred of Henly, a locality which, probably, preserves their name. Caesar alone mentions them. Gale and Horsely reasonably suppose that they were a section of the Attrebates of Ptolemy. They were the most western Britons with which Caesar came in contact. (Caes. B. G. v. 21.) [R. G. L.] ANCHI'ALE 07x^77, 'A7xioAem, 'A7X"*Aos: Eth. 'A7xiaAeus), a town of Cilicia, which Ste- phanus (s. v. ^7x^77) places on the coast, and on a river Anchialeus. One story which he reports, makes its origin purely mythical. The other story that he records, assigns its origin to Sardanapalus, who is said to have built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day. Strabo also places Anchiale near the coast. [AXAZARBUS.] Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo (p. 672), says that the tomb of Sardanapalus was at Anchiale, and on it a relief in stone (rvnov XiQivov) in the attitude of a man snapping the fingers of his right hand. He adds, " some say that there is an inscription in Assyrian characters, which recorded that Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorted the reader to eat, drink, and so forth, as everything else is not worth That , the meaning of which the attitude of the figure showed." In the text of Strabo, there follow six hexameter Greek verses, which are evidently an interpolation in the text. After these six verses, the text of Strabo proceeds : " Choerilus, also, men- tions these matters ; and the following verses also are generally circulated." The two hexameters which then follow, are a paraphrase of the exhorta- tion, of which Strabo has already given the sub- stance in prose. Athenaeus (xii. p. 529) quotes Aristobulus as authority for the monument at An- chiale; and Amyntas as authority for the exist- ence of a mound at Ninus (Nineveh}, which was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and contained, on a stone slab, in Chaldaic characters, an inscription to the same effect as that which Strabo mentions; and Athenaeus says that Choerilus paraphrased it in verse. In another passage, Athenaeus (p. 336) quotes the six hexameters, which are interpolated in Strabo's text, but he adds a seventh. He there cites Chrysippus as authority for the inscription being on the tomb of Sardanapalus; but he does not, in that passage, say who is the Greek para- phrast, or where the inscription was. Athenaeus, however (p. 529), just like a mere collector who ANCONA. uses no judgment, gives a third story about a monument of Sardanapalus, without saying where it was; the inscription recorded that he built Tar- sus and Anchiale in one day, " but now is dead ;" which suggests very different reflections from the other version. Arrian (Anab. ii. 5), probably fol- lowing Ptolemy, says, that Alexander marched in one day from Anchiale to Tarsus. He describes the figure on the monument as having the hands joined, as clapping the hands; he adds, that the former magnitude of the city was shown by the circuit and the foundations of the walls. This description does not apply to the time of Arrian, but to the age of Alexander, for Arruin is merely copying the historians of Alexander. It seems hardly doubtful that the Assyrians once extended their power as far, at least, as Anchiale, and that there was a monument with Assyrian characters there in the time of Alexander; and there might be one also to the same effect at Nineveh. (See Cic. Tusc.Disp. v. 35; Polyb. viii. 12; and as to the passage of Strabo, Groskurd's Translation and Notes, vol. iii. p. 81.) Leake (Asia Minor, p. 214) observes, that a little west of Tarsus, and between the villages Kazalu and Karaduar, is a river that answers to the Anchialeus; and he observes that "a large mound, not far from the Anchialeus, with some other similar tumuli near the shore to the westward, are the remains, perhaps, of the Assyrian founders of Anchiale, which probably derived its temporary importance from being the chief ma- ritime station of the Assyrian monarchs in these seas." [G, L.] ANCHI'ALE ('A7xiaA->7: Alciali), a small town on the western coast of the Euxine, to the north of Apollonia, to which its inhabitants were subject. (Strab. vii. p. 319.) The Latin writers, who men- tion the place, call it Anchialus or Anchialum. (Ov. Trist. i. 9. 36; Pomp. Mel. ii. 2; Plin. H. N. iv. 18; comp. Ptol. iii. 11. 4.) [L. S.] ANCHIASMUS. [ONCHESMUS.] ANCHI'SIA. [MANTINEIA.] A'NCHOE ('A7xi '>$), an ancient town of Messenia, and the capital of the kings of the race of the Leleges. It was celebrated as the birthplace of Aristomenes, but towards the end of the second Messenian war it was deserted by its inhabitants, who took refuge in the strong fortress of Ira. From this time it was only a village. Livy (xxxvi. 31) describes it as a parvum oppidum, and Pausanias (iv. 33. 6) saw only its ruins. It was situated on the road leading from Messene to Megalopolis. Its ruins, according toLeake, are now called JEllinikokastro, and are situated upon a height near the village of Fyla or Filia. The Homeric Oechalia is identified by Strabo with An- dania, but by Pausanias with Carnasium, which was only 8 stadia from Andania. (Pans. iv. 1. 2, iv. 3. 7, iv. 14. 7, 26. 6, 33. 6; Strab. pp. 339, 350; Steph. B. s. v.; Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 388.) ANDECAVI, a Gallic tribe, who were stirred up to a rising by Julius Sacrovir in the time of Ti- berius, A. D. 21. (Tac. Ann. iii. 40.) As Tacitus in this passage couples them with the Turonii or Turones, we may conclude that they are the tribe which Caesar calls Andes (B. G. ii. 35), and which occupied a part of the lower valley of the Loire (Ligeris), on the north bank, west of the Turones. Their position is still more accurately defined by that of their chief town Juliomagus, or Civitas An- decavorum, the modern Angers, in the department of Maine et Loire, on the Mayenne, an affluent of the Loire. [G. L.] ANDEIRA ("A^Sei/m: Eth. 'Aj/Setpavos), as it is written in Pliny (v. 32), a town of the Troad, the site of which is uncertain. There was a temple of the Mother of the Gods here, whence she had the name Andeirene. (Steph. B. s. v. "AvSeipa.') As to the stone found here (Strab. p. 610), which, when " burnt, becomes iron," and as to the rest of this passage, the reader may consult the note in Gros- kurd's translation of Strabo (vol. ii. p. 590). [G. L.] ANDEMATUNNUM, the chief town of the Lin- gones, is not mentioned by Caesar. The name oc- curs in the Antonine Itinerary, and in the Peutinger Table; and in Ptolemaeus (ii. 9. 19) under the form 'Av8o/j.a.Tovvov. According to the Antonine Itin. a road led from this place to Tullum (TouT). In the passage of Eutropius (ix. 23) " circa Lin- gonas " means a city, which was also named " civitas Lingonum;" and if this is Andematunnum, the site is that of the modem town of Langres, on a hill in the department of Haute Mame, and near the source of the Marne (Matrona). Langres contains the remains of two triumphal arches, one erected in honour of the emperor Probus, and the other in honour of Constantius Chlorus. The inscription said to be found at Langres, which would show it to have been a Roman colony is declared by Valesius ANDERETIOMBA. to be spurious. In old French Langres was railed Langone or Langoinne. [G. L.] ANDERETIOMBA ;' another reading of AN- DERESIO, a town of Britain, mentioned by the ij)her of Ravenna only; in whose list it comes next to Calleva Atrebatum, or Silchester. Miba, a name equally unknown, follows; and then comes Mutuantonis, a military station in the south of Sussex. As far as the order in which the geogra- phical names of so worthless a writer is of any weight at all, the relation of Anderesio, or Ande- rctiomba, combined with the fact of the word being evidently compound, suggests the likelihood of the first syllable being that of the present town of And- over. [R. G. L.] AXDERIDA, is mentioned in the Notitia Imperil as the station of a detachment of Abulci (numerus Abulcorum); and as part of the Littus Saxoni- rum. In the Anglo-Saxon period it has far greater prominence. The district Anderida coin- cided with a well-marked natural division of the island, the Wealds of Sussex and Kent. The gault and green-sand districts belonged to it also, so that it reached from Alton to Hythe, and from East- bourne to the north of Maidstone Romney Marsh being especially excluded from it. Thirty miles from N. to S., and 120 from E. to W. are the dimen- sions given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ad Ann. 893), and this is not far from the actual distance. The name is British ; antred meaning uninhabited, and the form in full being Coed Andred, the un- inhabited wood. Uninhabited it was not; in the central ridge, mining industry was applied to the iron ore of Tilgate Forest at a veiy early period. The stiff clay district (the oak-tree clay of the geologists) around it, however, may have been the resort of outlaws only. Beonred, when expelled from Mercia, took refuge in the Andredeswald, from the north-western frontier; and the Britons who, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of A. t>. 477, fled from Aella and his son, did the same from the south. Of Anderida, as a district, An- dredesfecr^e (AndredsZea), and AndredesweaW (the Weald of Andred), are the later names. Of the particular station so called in the Notitia, the determination is difficult. Pevensey has the best claim; for remains of Roman walls are still standing. The neighbourhood of Eastbourne, where there are Roman remains also, though less consider- able, has the next best. Camden favoured Newen- den; other writers having preferred Ckichester. ' It is safe to say that Anderida never was a Saxon town at ah 1 . In A. D. 491, Aella and his son Cissa " slew all that dwelt therein, so that not a single Briton was left." (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ad ann.) [R. G. L.] AXDERTTUM, a town which Ptolemaeus calls 'AvSfpySov, and the capital of the Gabali, whom Caesar mentions (J5. G. vii. 75) as subjects of the Arverni. In the Not. Prov. Gall it is called Civitas Gabalum, having taken the name of the people, as was the case with most of the capitals of the Galh'c towns under the Lower Empire. D'Anville infers, from an inscription found in the neighbourhood of Javols or Javoux, which terminates thus, M. p. GABALL. v., that the position of Javols may repre- sent this place. Walckenaer (Geog.$c. des Gaules) places Anderitum at Anterrieux. Others suppose the site to be at Mende. Both Javols and Mende are in the Gevaudan, a part of the mountain region of the Cevennes. [G. L.] ANDROPOLIS. 135 ANDES. [ANDECAVI.] ANDES, a village in the neighbourhood of Man- tua, known only from the circumstance of its having been the actual birthplace of Virgil (Donat. Vit. Virgil. 1; Hieron. Chron. p. 396), who is, however, commonly called a native of Mantua, because Andes belonged to the territory of that city. It is commonly supposed to be represented by the modern village of Pietola, on the banks of the Mincius, about 2 miles below Mantua, but apparently with no other authority than local tradition, which is in general entitled to but little weight. (See Millin, Voyage dans le Mi- lanais, vol. ii. p. 301.) [E.H.B.J ANDE'TRIUM ('Avorirpiov, Strab. p. 315; 'At>- SfKpiov, Ptol. ii. 17. 11; 'Avo-fipiov, Dion Cass. Ivi. 12), a fortified town in Dalmatia near Salonae, which offered a brave resistance to Tiberius. ANDIZE'TII ('Aj>8^T), O ne of the chief tribes in Pannonia, occupying the country about the southern part of the Drave. (Strab. vii. p. 314; Plin. iii. 28, who calls them Andizetes.) [L. S.] ANDOSINI, a people in Spain between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, mentioned only in a passage of Polybius (iii. 35), where some editors proposed to read Ausetani. ANDRAPA ("AvSpmra), also called Neoclaudio- polis, a town of Paphlagonia, near the river Halys, in the later province of Helenopontus, and the seat of a bishopric. There are coins of this town, bearing the dates and effigies of M. Aurelius, Septimius Severus, and Caracalla. (Ptol. v. 4. 6 ; HierocL p. 701 ; Justin. Novell. 23.) ANDRIACA (AvSpidK-r): Andrdki), the port of the town of Myra in Lycia. Appian (B. C. iv. 82) says that Lentulus broke through the chain which crossed the entrance of the port, and went up the river to Myra. Beaufort (Karamania, p. 26) gives the name Andrdki to the river of Myra. On the north side of the entrance are the remains of large Roman horrea, with a perfect inscription, which states that the horrea were Hadrian's: the date is Hadrian's third consulate, which is A. D. 119. Andriaca is mentioned by Ptolemy; and Pliny has " Andriaca civitas, Myra" (v. 27). Andriaca, then, is clearly the place at the mouth of the small river on which Myra stood, 20 stadia higher np. (Strab. p. 666.) It must have been at Andriaca, as Cramer observes, that St. Paul and his com- panions were put on board the ship of Alexandria. (Acts, xxvii. 5, 6.) [G. L.] A'NDRIUS. [TROAS.] ANDRO'POLIS ('Avtipwv ir6\is,Ptol. iv. 5. 46; Hierocl. p. 724 : Eth. 'AySpoTroAfrijs), the modem Chabur, was the chief town of the Andropolite nome in the Delta. It was seated on the left bank of the Nile, was the head-quarters of a legion (Not. Imp.), and a bishop's see. (Athanas. Ep. ad Antioch. p. 776.) From its name, which is involved in some obscurity, it would seem that the peculiar worship of the city and nome of Andropolis was that of the Manes or Shades of the Dead. (Manetho, ap. Euseb. Chronicon.) Geographers have attempted, not very successfully, to identify Andropolis with the Archandropolis of Herodotus (ii.98), which, the historian adds, is not an Egyptian name, and with the Gynaecopolis of Strabo (p. 803). D'Anville supposes it to have been the same as the city An- thylla ("AvfluAAa, Herod, ii. 97), the revenues of which were assigned to the Egyptian queens as sandal-money, or, as we term it, pin-money. This custom, chancing to coincide with a Persian usage K 4 136 ANDROS. (Nepos, Themist. 10), was continued by Cambyses and his successors. [W. B. D.I ANDROS ("Avopos : Eth. "AvSpios, Andrius : A n- dro), the most northerly and one of the largest islands of the Cyclades, SE. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8 broad. According to tradition it derived its name either from Andreus, a general of Rhadamanthus or from the seer Andrus. (Diod. v. 79; Paus. x. 13. 4; Conon, 44; Steph. B. s. v.) It was colonized by lonians, and early attained so much importance as to send colonies to Acanthus and Stageira in Chalcidice about B. c. 654. (Thuc, iv. 84, 88.) The Andrians were compelled to join the fleet of Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, B. c. 480 ; in consequence of which Themistocles attempted to levy a large sum of money from the people, and upon their re- fusing to pay it, laid siege to their city, but was unable to take the place. (Herod, viii. Ill, 121.) The island however afterwards became subject to the Athenians, and at a later time to the Macedonians. It was taken by the Romans in their war with Philip, B. c. 200, and given to their ally Attalus. (Liv. xxxi. 45.) The chief city also called Andros, was situated nearly in the middle of the western coast of the island, at the foot of a lofty mountain. Its citadel strongly fortified by nature is mentioned by Livy (I. c.). It had no harbour of its own, but it used one in the neighbourhood, called Gaurion (Tavpiov) by Xenophon (Hell i. 4. 22), and Gaureleon by Livy (I. c.), and which still bears the ancient name of Gavrion. The ruins of the ancient city are de- scribed at length by Ross, who discovered here, among other inscriptions, an interesting hymn to Isis in hexameter verse, of which the reader will find a copy in the Classical Museum (vol. i. p. 34, seq.). The present population of Andros is 15,000 souls. Its soil is fertile, and its chief productions are silk and wine. It was also celebrated for its wine in antiquity, and the whole island was regarded as sacred to Dionysus. There was a tradition that, during the festival of this god, a fountain flowed with wine. (Plin. ii. 103, xxxi. 13; Paus. vi. 26, 2.) (Thevenot, Travels, Part i. p. 15, seq.; Tournefort, Voyage, vol. i. p. 265, seq.; Fiedler, Reise, vol. ii. p. 221, seq.; and especially Ross, Reisen auf d. Griech. Inseln, vol. ii. p. 12, seq.) COIN OF ANDROS. ANDROS. [EUROS.] ANDU'SIA, a town known only from an inscrip- tion found at Nimes, or at Anduse (Walckenaer, Geog. ^c.). The name still exists in the small town of Anduse on the Gar don, called the Gar don d' Anduse, which flows into the Rhone on the right bank, between Avignon and Aries. (D'Anville, Notice, &c.) [G. L.] ANEMOREIA, subsequently ANEMOLEIA (Ave/j.d!)pLa, 'Ai>e/j.c!>\fia: Eth. 'Ai/eyuwpeu's), a town of Phocis mentioned by Homer, was situated on a height on the borders of Phocis and Delphi, and is baid to have derived its name from the gusts of wind which blew on the place from the tops of Mt. Par- ANGRIVARH. nassus. (Horn. //. ii. 521 ; Strab. p. 423; Steph. B *..) ANEMO'SA ('Af ejuw.-in<_ r specimen of Phoenician fortification in Syria. (Mi'mmres sur les Pheniciens par 1'Abbe' Mignot, A cad. des Belles Lettres, vol. xxxiv. p. 239 ; Edrisi, par Jaulert, p. 129, 130.) [E. B. I.] ANTKMNAE ('Arrtfunui Eth. Antemnas, atis), a very ancient city of Latium situated only three miles from Rome, just belowthe confluence of the Anio with the Tiber. It derived its name from this position, ante amnem. (Varr. de L. L. v. 28 ; Fest. p. 17 ; Serv. ad Aen. vii. 631.) All authors agree in repre- senting it as a very ancient city. Virgil mentions the " tower-bearing Antemnae " among the five great cities which were the first to take up arms against the Trojans {Aen. vii. 631), and Silius Italicus tells us that it was even more ancient than Crustumium (prisco Crustumio prior, viii. 367). Dionysius calls it a city of the Aborigines, and in one passage says expressly that it was founded by them: while in another he represents them as wresting it from the Siculi (i. 16, ii. 35). From its proximity to Rome it was naturally one of the first places that came into collision with the rising city; and took up arms together with Caenina and Crustumerium to avenge the rape of the women. They were however unsuc- cessful, the city was taken by Romulus, and part of the inhabitants removed to Rome, while a Roman colony was sent to supply their place. (Liv. i. 10, 11; Dionys. ii. 3235; Plut. Romul 17.) Plu- tarch erroneously supposes Antemnae to have been a Sabine city, and this view has been adopted by many modern writers ; but both Livy and Dionysius clearly regard it as of Latin origin, and after the expulsion of the kings it was one of the first Latin cities that took up arms against Rome in favour of the exiled Tarquin (Dionys. v. 21). But from this time its name disappears from history as an independent city : it is not found in the list of the 30 cities of the Latin league, and must have been early destroyed or reduced to a state of complete dependence upon Rome. Varro (I. c.) speaks of it as a decayed place;. and though Dionysius tells us it was still inhabited in his tune (i. 16) we learn from Strabo (v. p. 230) that it was a mere village, the property of a private individual. Pliny also enume- rates it among the cities of Latium which were utterly extinct (iii. 5. s. 9). The name is how- ever mentioned on occasion of the great battle at the Colline Gate, B. c. 82, when the left wing of the Samnites was pursued by Crassus as far as Antemnae, where the next morning they surren- dered to Sulla. (Plut. Sull 30.) At a much later period we find Alaric encamping on the site when he advanced upon Rome in A. D. 409. This is the last notice of the name, and the site has probably continued ever since in its present state of desolation. Not a vestige of the city now remains, but its site is so clearly marked by nature as to leave no doubt of the correctness of its identification. It occupied the level summit of a hill of moderate extent, surrounded on all sides by steep declivities, which rises on the left of the Via Salaria, immediately above the flat meadows which extend on each side of the Anio and the Tiber at their confluence. (Gell's Topogr. of Home, p. 65 ; Nibby, Dintorni diRoma, vol. i. p. 1 63 ; Dennis's Etruria, vol. i. p. 64.) [E. H. B.] ANTHE'DON ('Aj/07j5c6v: Eth. 'Aj>07j8<$"w, An- thedonius), a town of Boeotia, and one of the cities ANTHEMUSIA. 139 of the League, was situated on the Euripus or the Euboean sea at the foot of Mt. Messapius, and was distant, according to Dicacarchus, 70 stadia from Chalcis and 160 from Thebes. Anthedon is men- tioned by Homer (II. ii. 508) as the furthermost town of Boeotia. The inhabitants derived their origin from the sea-god Glaucus, who is said to have been originally a native of the place. They appear to have been a different race from the other people of Boeotia, and are described by one writer (Lycophr. 754) as Thracians. Dicaearchus informs us that they were chiefly mariners, shipwrights and fisher- men, who derived their subsistence from trading in fish, purple, and sponges. He adds that the agora was surrounded with a double stoa, and planted with trees. We learn from Pausanias that there was a sacred grove of the Cabeiri in the middle of the town, surrounding a temple of those deities, and near it a temple of Demeter. Outside the walls was a temple of Dionysus, and a spot called " the leap of Glaucus." The wine of Anthedon was celebrated in antiquity. The ruins of the town are situated 1 mile from Lukisi. (Dicaearch. Bios 'EAAciSos, p. 145, ed. Fuhr; Strab. pp. 400, 404, 445; Paus. ix. 22. 5, ix. 26. 2; Athen. pp. 31, 296, 316, 679; Steph. B. s. v. ; Ov.Met. vii. 232, xiii. 905 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 272.) ANTHE'DON ('AvftjScfo : Eth. 'AyftjSoitfnjs), a city on the coast of Palestine, 20 stadia dis- tant from Gaza (Sozomen. Hist. Eccles. v. 9), to the south-west. Taken and destroyed by Alex- ander Jannaeus. (Joseph. Ant. xiii. 13. 3; comp. 15. 4.) Restored by Gabinius (xiv. 5. 3). Added to the dominions of Herod the Great by Augustus (xv. 7. 3). Its name was changed to Agrippias by Herod. (Joseph. Ant. xiii. 13. 3.) In the tune of Julian it was much addicted to Gen- tile superstition and idolatry (Sozomen. I. c.), par- ticularly to the worship of Astarte' or Venus, as appears from a coin of Antoninus and Caracalla, given by Vaillant (Numism. Colon, p. 115). [G.W.] ANTHEIA (*Av8ia : Eth. 'Aj>0efo). 1. A town in Messenia, mentioned by Homer (II. ix. 151), who gives it the epithet fiadvteincov, supposed by later writers to be the same as Thuria, though some identified it with Asine. (Strab. viii. p. 360 ; Paus. iv. 31. 1 ; Leake, Morea, vol. i. p. 453.) 2. A town in Troezene, founded by Antlies. (Paus. ii. 30. 8 ; Steph. B. s. v.) 3. [PATRAE.] 4. A town on the Hellespont, founded by the Milesians and Phocaeans. (Steph. B. s. v. ; Eustath. ad Horn. p. 743,22.) ANTHE'LA. [THERMOPYLAE.] A'NTHEMUS ('Aj/0e/ioi5s, -OWTOS: Eth.'AvBe- fj.ovffi.os), a town of Macedonia of some importance, belonging to the early Macedonian monarchy. It appears to have stood SE. of Thessalonica and N. of Chalcidice, since we learn from Thucydides that its territory bordered upon Bisaltia, Crestonia and Myg- donia. It was given by Philip to the Olynthians. Like some of the other chief cities in Macedonia, it gave its name to a town in Asia. (Steph. B. s. v.) It continued to be mentioned by writers under the Roman empire. (Herod, v. 94; Thuc. ii. 99, 100; Dem. Phil ii. p. 70, ed. Reisk.; Diod. xv. 8; Plin. iv. 10. s. 17. 36; Liban. Declam. xiii.; Aristid.ii. 224; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 450.) ANTHEMU'SIA. [MYGDONIA.] ANTHEMU'SIA ('Av0e/iou<7fa, 'Aj^eyuous: Eth. 'Ap0e/xoucnos), a town of Mesopotamia. Strabo (p. 140 ANTHENE. 347) speaks of the Aborras (Khdbivr) flowing around or about Anthcmusia, and it seems that he must mean the region Anthemusia. Tacitus {Ann. vi. 41) gives the toAvn what is probably its genuine Greek name, Anthemusias, for it was one of the Macedonian foundations in this country. Accord- ing to Isidore of Charax, it lies between Edessa (Orfa) and the Euphrates, 4 schoeni from Edessa. There is another passage in Strabo in which he speaks of Anthemusia as a place (rdiros) in Meso- potamia, and he seems to place it near the Eu- phrates. In the notes to Harduin's Pliny (v. 24), a Roman brass coin of Anthemusia or Anthemus, as it was also called, is mentioned, of the tune of Cara- calla, with the epigraph Av^ovaicav. [G. L.] ANTHE'NE ('Av6i]vn, Thuc. ; 'AvOdva, Steph. B. i, Paus.: Eth. 'Aveavds, Steph. B.), a town in Cynuria, originally inhabited by the Aegi- netans, and mentioned by Thucydides along with Thyrea, as the two chief places in Cynuria. Modern travellers are not agreed respecting its site. (Thuc. v. 41; Paus. iii. 38. 6; Harpocr. s. v. ; Leake, Morea, vol. ii. p. 494; Boblaye, p. 69; Boss, Pelo- ponnes, p. 163.) ANTHYLLA ("AitfwAXa, Herod, ii. 97 ; 'Ay- ruAAo, Athen. i. p. 33 ; Steph. B. s. v. : Eth. 'Av- fluAAatos), was a considerable town upon the Canobic branch of the Kile, a few miles SE. of Alexandreia. Its revenues were assigned by the Persian kings of Egypt to their queens, to provide them, Herodotus says, with sandals; Athenaeus says, with girdles. From this usage, Anthylla is believed by some geo- graphers to be the same city as Gynaecopolis, which, however, was further to the south than Anthylla. (Mannert, Geogr. der Gr. und Rom. vol. x. p. 596.) [ANDROPOLIS]. Athenaeus commends the wine of Anthylla as the best produced by "Egyptian vine- yards. [W. B. D.] ANTICINO'LIS. ( CINOLIS, or CIMOLIS.] ANTICIRKHA. TANTICYEA.] ANTI'CRAGUS. [CRAGUS.] ANTFCYRA ('AvrlKitfa, Dicaearch., Strab., perhaps the most ancient form; next 'AvriKvppa, Eustath. ad II. ii. 520; Ptol. iii. 15. 4; and lastly 'Avr'iKvpa, which the Latin writers use : Eth. 'Avn- Kvptvs, 'AvTiKvpcuos). 1. (Aspra Spitia), a town in Phocis, situated on a peninsula (which Pliny and A. Gellius erroneoiisly call an island), on a bay (Sinus Anticyranus) of the Corinthian gulf. It owed its importance to the ex- cellence of its harbour on this sheltered gulf, and to its convenient situation for communications with the interior. (Dicaearch. 77; Strab. p. 418; Plin. xxv. 5. s. 21 ; Gell. xvii. 13; Liv. xxxii. 18; Paus. x. 36. 5, seq.) It is said to have been originally called Cyparissus, a name which Homer mentions (77. ii. 519 ; Paus. I. c.) Like the other towns of Phocis it was destroyed by Philip of Macedon at the close of the Sacred War (Paus. x. 3. 1, x. 36. 6); but it soon recovered from its ruins. It was taken by the consul T. Flamininus in the war with Philip B.C. 198, on account of its convenient situation for military purposes (Liv. I. c.) It continued to be a place of importance in the time both of Strabo and of Pausanias, the latter of whom has described some of its pubh'c buildings. Anticyra was chiefly cele- brated for the production and preparation of the best hellebore in Greece, the chief remedy in antiquity for madness. Many persons came to reside at Anticyra for the sake of a more perfect cure. (Strab. I. c.) Hence the proverb 'Avrutippas ere 5e?, and Naviyct AXTILIBANUS. Anticyram, when a person acted foolishly. (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 83, 166; comp. Ov. e Pont. iv. 3. 53; Pers. iv. 1 6 ; Juv. xiii. 97.) The hellebore grew in great quan- tities around the town : Pausanias mentions two kinds, of which the root of the black was used as a cathartic, and that of the white as an emetic. (Strab. I. c. ; Paus. x. 36. 7.) There are very few ancient re- mains at Aspra Spitia, but Leake discovered here an inscription containing the name of Anticyra. (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. ii. p. 541, seq.) 2. A town in Thessaly in the district Malis at the mouth of the Spercheus. (Herod, vii. 198; Strab. pp.418, 434.) According to Stephanus (s. v. 'Av- riKvpai) the best hellebore was grown at this place, and one of its citizens exhibited the medicine to Heracles, when labouring under madness in this neighbourhood. 3. A town in Locris, which most modern com- mentators identify with the Phocian Anticyra. [No. 1.] Livy, however, expressly says (xxvi. 26) that the Locrian Anticyra was situated on the left hand in entering the Corinthian gulf, and at a short distance both by sea and land from Naupactus; whereas the Phocian Anticyra was nearer the ex- tremity than the entrance of the Corinthian gulf, and was 60 miles distant from Naupactus. More- over Strabo speaks of three Anticyrae, one in Phocis, a second on the Maliac gulf (p. 418), and a third in the country of the western Locri, or Locri Ozolae (p. 434). Horace, likewise, in a well-known passage (Ars Poet. 300) speaks of three Anticyrae, and represents them all as producing hellebore. (Leake, Ibid. p. 543.) ANTIGONEIA ('AiwycWia, 'AvTiyovia, Anti- gonea, Liv.: Eth. 'Avnyovsvs, Antigonensis). 1. A town of Epirus in the district Chaonia, on the Aous and near a narrow pass leading from Illyria into Chaonia. (Ta trap' 'AvnySveiav trr^va, Pol. ii. 5, 6; ad Antigoneam fauces, Liv. xxxii. 5.) The town was hi the hands of the Eomans in their war with Perseus. (Liv. xliii. 23.) It is mentioned both by Pliny (iv. 1) and Ptolemy (iii. 14. 7). 2. A town of Macedonia in the district Crusis hi Chalcidice, placed by Livy between Aeneia and Pallene. (Liv. xliv. 10.) It is called by Ptolemy (iii. 13. 38) Psaphara (Yo^apa) probably hi order to distinguish it from Antigoneia in Paeonia. (Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 460.) 3. A town of Macedonia hi Paeonia, placed in the Tabular Itinerary between Stena and Stobi. (Scym- nus, 631 ; Plin. iv. 10 s. 17; Ptolem. iii. 13. 36.) 4. The later name of Mantineia. [MANTINEIA.] 5. A city hi Syria on the Orontes, founded by Antigonus in B. c. 307, and intended to be the capital of his empire. After the battle of Ipsus, B. c. 301, in which Antigonus perished, the in- habitants of Antigoneia w r ere removed by his suc- cessful rival Seleucus to the city of Antioch, which the latter founded a little lower down the river. (Strab. xvi. p. 750; Diod. xx. 47; Liban. Antioch. p. 349; Malala, p. 256.) Diodorus erroneously says that the inhabitants were removed to Seleuceia. Antigoneia continued, however, to exist, and is men- tioned in the war with the Parthians after the defeat of Crassus. (Dion Cass. xl. 29.) 6. An earlier name of Alexandreia Troas. [ALEX- ANDREIA TROAS, p. 102, b.] 7. An earlier name of Nicaea hi Bithynia. [Ni CAEA.] ANTILI'BANUS ('AvriAigavos : Jebel esh- Shurki), the eastern of the two great parallel ridges ANTINOOPOLIS. of mountains which enclose the valley of Coelo- Syria 1'rojM-r. (Strab. xvi. p. 754; Ptol. v. 15. 8; IMin. v. 20.) The Hebrew name of Lebanon (At- ai'os,LXX.), which has been adopted in Europe, and signifies " white," from the white-grey colours of tin- limestone, comprehends the two ranges of Li- banus and Antilibanus. The general direction of Autilihnims is from NE. by SW. Nearly opposite to Damascus it bifurcates into diverging ridges ; the easternmost of the two, the Hermon of the Old Tes- tament (Jebel esh-Sheikh}, continues its SW. course, and is the proper prolongation of Antilibanus, and attains, in its highest elevation, to the point of about 10,000 feet from the sea. The other ridge takes a more westerly course, is long and low, and at length unites with the other bluft's and spurs of Libanus. The E. branch was called by the Sidonians Sirion, and by the Amorites Shenir (Deut. iii. 9), both names signifying a coat of mail. (Rosenmiiller, Alterth. vol. ii. p. 235.) In Deut. (iv. 9) it is called Mt. Sion,"etn elevation." In the later books (1 Chron. v. 23; Sol. Song, iv. 8) Shenir is distinguished from Hermon, properly so called. The latter name in the Arabic form, Siinir, was applied in the middle ages to Antilibanus, north of Hermon. (Abulf. Tab. fyr. p. 164.) The geology of the district has not been thoroughly investigated; the formations seem to b.-Iong to the upper Jura formation, oolite, and Jura dolomite; the poplar is characteristic of its vegetation. The outlying promontories, in common with those of Libanus, supplied the Phoenicians with abundance of timber for ship-building. (Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. iii. p. 358; Ritter, JErdkunde, vol. ii. p. 434; 1,'aimier, Palilstina, pp.29 35; Burkhardt, Tra- r< /,< tn, Syria ; Kobinson's Researches, vol. iii. pp. 344, 345.) [E. B. J.] ANTINO'OPOLIS, ANTI'NOE ('Avrtvtw iro- AJS, Ptol. iv. 5. 61; Paus. viii. 9; Dion Cass. Ixix. 11 ; Amm. Marc. xix. 12, xxii. 16; Aur. Viet'. Caemr, 14; Spartian. Hadrian. 14; Chron. Pasch. p. 254, Paris edit.; It, Anton, p. 167; Hierocl. p. 730; 'Avrivoeia, Steph. B. s. v. 'ASpiavoviroXts: Eth. 'Avnvoevs'), was built by the emperor Hadrian in A.I). 122, in memory of his favourite Antinous. (Dictionary of Biography, s. v.) It stood upon the eastern bank of the Nile, lat. 26| N., nearly oppo- site Hermopolis. It occupied the site of the village of Besa (Erjaaa), named after the goddess and oracle of Besa, which was consulted occasionally even as late as the age of Constantine. Antinoopolis was a little to the south of Besa, and at the foot of the hill upon which that village was seated. A grotto, once inhabited by Christian anchorites, probably marks the seat of the shrine and oracle, and Grecian tombs with inscriptions point to the necropolis of Anti- noopolis. The new city at first belonged to the Heptanomis, but was afterwards annexed to the Thelmd. The district around became the Anti- noite nome. The city itself was governed by its own .senate and Prytaneus or President. The senate was chosen from the members of the wards (0uAaf), of which we learn the name of one 'A0?ji/cs from inscriptions (Orelli, No. 4705); and its decrees, as well as those of the Prytaneus, were not, as usual, subject to the revision of the nomarch, but to that of the prefect (eiricrTpdr'nyos') of the Thebaid. Di- vine honours were paid in the Antinoeion to Antinous as a local deity, and games and chariot-raceg were annually exhibited in commemoration of his death and of Hadrian's sorrow. (Dictionary of An- tiquities, s. v. 'Aj/Ttpoeiw.) The city of Antinoopolis ANTINUM. 141 exhibited the Graeco-Ifomnn architecture of Trajan's age in immediate contrast with the Egyptian style. Its ruins, which the Copts call Emeneh, at the vil- lage of Sheik-Abadeh, attest, by the area which they fill, the ancient grandeur of the city. The di- rection of the prineipal streets may still be traced. One at least of them, which ran from north to south, had on either side of it a corridor supported by columns for the convenience of foot-passengers. The walls of the theatre near the southern gate, and those of the hippodrome without the walls to the east, arc still extant. At the north-western ex- tremity of the city was a portico, of which four columns remain, inscribed to " Good Fortune," and bearing the date of the 14th and last year of the reign of Alexander Severus, A. D. 235. As far as can be ascertained from the space covered with mounds of masonry, Antinoopolis was about a mile and a half in length, and nearly half a mile broad. Near the Hippodrome are a well and tanks apper- taining to an ancient road, which leads from the eastern gate to a valley behind the town, ascends the mountains, and, passing through the desert by the Wddee Tarfa, joins the roads to the quarries of the Mons Porphyrites. (Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, p. 382.) The Antinoite nome was frequently exposed to the ravage of invading armies; but they have inflicted less havoc upon its capital and the neigbouring Her- mopolis than the Turkish and Egyptian governments, which have converted the materials of these cities into a lime-quarry. A little to the south of Anti- noopolis is a grotto, the tomb of Thoth-otp, of the age of Sesortasen, containing a representation of a colossus fastened on a sledge, which a number of men drag by ropes, according to the usual [mode adopted by the Egyptian masons. This tomb was discovered by Irby and Mangles. There are only three silver coins of Antinous extant (Akerman, Roman Coins, i. p. 253) ; but the number of temples, busts, statues, &c. dedicated to his memory by Hadrian form an epoch in the declining art of an- tiquity. (Origen, in Celsum, iii.; Euseb. Hist, Eccles. iv. 8.) [ w - B - D -] ANTI'NUM, a city of the Marsians, still called Civita dAntino, situated on a lofty hill in the upper valley of the Liris (now called the Valle di Roveto), about 15 miles from Sora and 6 from the Lake Fucinus, from which it is, however, separated by an intervening mountain ridge. It is mentioned only by Ph'ny (iii. 12. 17), who enumerates the ATI- NATES among the cities of the Marsians; but the true form of the name is preserved to us by numerous inscriptions that have been discovered in the modern village, and from which we learn that it must have been a municipal town of considerable importance! Besides these, there remain several portions of the ancient walls, of polygonal construction, with a gate- way of the same style, which still serves for an en- trance to the modern village, and is called Porta Campanile. The Roman inscriptions confirm the testimony of Pliny as to the city being a Marsic one (one of them has " populi Antinatium Marsorum ") ; but an Oscan inscription which has been found there is in the Volscian dialect, and renders it probable that the city was at an earlier period occupied by that people. (Mommsen, Unter-Italischen Dialekte, p. 321.) It has been supposed by some writers to be the " castellum ad lacum Fucinum " mentioned by Livy (iv. 57) as conquered from that people in B. c. 408 ; but this is very doubtful. (Romanelli, 142 ANTIOCHEIA. vol. in. pp.222 232; Orelli, Inscr. 146, 3940; Craven's Abruzzi, vol. i. pp. 117 122; Hoare's Classical Tour, vol. i. p. 339, &c.; Kramer, Der Fuciner See, p. 54, note.) [E.H.B.] ANTIOCHEIA or -EA('AiTfxa: Eth. 'Arrio- Xeus, 'A.vri6xfios, Antiochensis : Adj. 'Avrioxutts, Antiochenus), the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, situated in the angle where the southern coast of Asia Minor, running eastwards, and the coast of Phoenicia, running northwards, are brought to an abrupt meeting, and in the opening formed by the river Orontes between the ranges of Mount Taurus and Mount Lebanon. Its position is nearly where the 36th parallel of latitude intersects the 36th me- ridian of longitude, and it is about 20 miles distant from the sea, about 40 W. of Aleppo, and about 20 S. of Scanderoon. [See Map, p. 115.] It is now a subordinate town in the pachalik of Aleppo, and its modern name is still AntaTdeh. It was an- ciently distinguished as Antioch by the Orontes ('A. eVi 'Opo'i/TT?), because it was situated on the left bank of that river, where its course turns ab- ruptly to the west, after running northwards between the ranges of Lebanon and Antilebanon [OROKTES] ; and also Antioch by Daphne ('A. CTT! Aa^v??, Strab. xvi.pp.749 751 ; Plut. Lucull.Zl ; yirpbs Aa^vrjv, Hierocl. p. 711 ; A. Epidaphnes, Plin. v. 18. s. 21), because of the celebrated grove of Daphne which was consecrated to Apollo in the immediate neigh- bourhood. [DAPHNE.] The physical characteristics of this situation may be briefly described. To the south, and rather to the west, the cone of Mount Casius (Jebel-el-Akrdb ; see Col. Chesney, in the Journal of the Roy. Geoff. Soc. vol. viii. p. 228) rises symmetrically from the sea to the elevation of more than 5000 feet. [CA- sius.] To the north, the heights of Mount AMA- NUS are connected with the range of Taurus ; and the Beilan pass [AMANIDES PTLAE] opens a com- munication with Cilicia and the rest of Asia Minor. In the interval is the valley (ai>\wv, Malala, p. 1 36), or rather the plain of Antioch (rb TWV 'AVTIOX*O> V TreSiov, Strab. I. c.), which is a level space about 5 miles in breadth between the mountains, and about 10 miles in length. Through this plain the river Orontes sweeps from a northerly to a westerly course, receiving, at the bend, a tributary from a lake which was about a mile distant from the an- cient city (Gul. Tyr. iv. 10), and emptying itself into the bay of Antioch near the base of Mount Ca- sius. " The windings (from the city to the mouth) give a distance of about 41 miles, whilst the journey by land is only 16^ miles." (Chesney, I. c. p. 230.) Where the river passes by the city, its breadth is said by the traveller Niebuhr to be 125 feet; but great changes have taken place in its bed. An important part of ancient Antioch stood upon an island; but whether the channel which insulated that section of the city was artificial, or changes have been produced by earthquakes or more gradual causes, there is now no island of appreciable magni- tude, nor does there appear to have been any in the time of the Crusades. The distance between the bend of the river and the mountain on the south is from one to two miles; and the city stood partly on the level, and partly where the ground rises in ab- rupt and precipitous forms, towards Mount Casius. The heights with which we are concerned are the two summits of Mount Silpius (Mai. passim ; and Suid. s. v. '!&), the easternmost of which fell in a more gradual slope to the plain, so as to admit of the ANTIOCHEIA. cultivation of vineyards, while the other was higher and more abrupt. (See the Plan.) Between them was a deep ravine, down which a mischievous torrent ran in whiter (Phyrminus or Parmenius, TOV pvaKos rov heyofJLZvov Gvpn'ivov, Mai. p. 346; Uap^yiou Xwdppov, pp. 233, 339; cf. Procop. de Aedif. ii. 10). Along the crags on these heights broken masses of ancient walls are still conspicuous, while the modern habitations are on the level near the river. The appearance of the ground has doubtless been much altered by earthquakes, which have been in all ages the scourge of Antioch. Yet a very good notion may be obtained, from the descriptions of modern travellers, of the aspect of the ancient city. The advantages of its position are very evident. By its harbour of SELEUCEIA, it was in communication with all the trade of the Mediterranean ; and, through the open country behind Lebanon, it was conve- niently approached by the caravans from Mesopo- tamia and Arabia. To these advantages of mere position must be added the facilities afforded by its river, which brought down timber and vegetable produce and fish from the lake (Liban. Antioch. pp. 360, 361), and was navigable below the city to the mouth, and is believed to be capable of being made navigable again. (Roy. Geog. Soc. vol. viii. p. 230; cf. Strab. I c.; Paus. viii. 29. 3.) The fertility of the neighbourhood is evident now in its unassisted vegetation. The Orontes has been com- pared to the Wye. It does not, like many Eastern rivers, vary between a winter-torrent and a dry watercourse; and its deep and rapid waters are de- scribed as winding round the bases of high and precipitous cliffs, or by richly cultivated banks, where the vine and the fig-tree, the myrtle, the bay, the ilex, and the arbutus are mingled with dwarf oak and sycamore. For descriptions of the scenery, with views, the reader may consult Game's Syria (i. 5, 19, 77, ii. 28.). We can well understand the charming residence which the Seleucid princes and the wealthy Komans found in " beautiful Antioch " ('A. T) Ka\-f), Athen. i. p. 20 ; Orientis apex pulcher, Amm. Marc. xxii. 9), with its climate tempered with the west wind (Liban. p. 346 ; cf. Herodian. vi. 6) and where the salubrious waters were so abundant, that not only the public baths, but, as in modern Damascus, almost every house, had its fountain. Antioch, however, with all these advantages of situation, is not, like Damascus, one of the oldest cities of the world. It is a mere imagination to identify it (as is done by Jerome and some Jewish commentators) with the Riblah of the Old Testa- ment. Antioch, like Alexandreia, is a monument of the Macedonian age, and was the most famous of sixteen Asiatic cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called after the name of his father or (as some say) of his son Antiochus. The situation was evidently well chosen, for communicating both with his posses- sions on the Mediterranean and those in Mesopotamia, with which Antioch was connected by a road leading to Zeugma on the Euphrates. This was not the first city founded by a Macedonian prince near this place. Antigonus, in B. c. 307, founded Antigonia, a short distance further up the river, for the purpose of commanding both Egypt and Babylonia. (Diod. xx. p. 7 58.) But after the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301 the city of Antigonus was left unfinished, and An- tioch was founded by his successful rival. The sanction of auguries was sought for the establish- ment of the new metropolis. Like Romulus on the Palatine, Seleucus is said to have watched the flight ANTIOCHEIA. of birds from the summit of Mount Casius. An eagle carried a fragment of the flesh of the sirrilirr to a point on the sea-shore, a little to the north of the mouth of the Orontes; and there Selcuceia was luiilt. Soon after, an eagle decided in the same manner that the metropolis of Seleucus was not to be Antigonia, by carrying the ilcsh to the hill Sil- pius. Between this hill and the river the city of Antioch was founded in the spring of the year 300 B. c., the 12th of the era of the Seleucidae. This legend is often represented on coins of Antioch by an eagle, which sometimes carries the thigh of a victim. On many coins (as that engraved below) we see a rain, which is often combined with a star, thus indi- cating the vernal sign of the zodiac, under which the city was founded, and reminding us at the same time of the astrological propensities of the people of Antioch. (See Eckhel, Descriptio Numorum Antio- chiae Syriae, Vienna, 1786 ; Vaillant, Sdeuci- durrnn Impcrium, sive Historia Regum Syriae, ad Jldem numismatum accommodata. Paris, 1681.) The city of Seleucus was built in the plain (eV TTJ TreStaSt rov av\uvos, Mai. p. 200) between the river and the hill, and at some distance from the latter, to avoid the danger to be apprehended from the torrents. Xenaeus was the architect who raised the walls, which skirted the river on the north, and did not reach so far as the base of the hill on the south. This was only the earliest part of the city. Three other parts were subsequently added, each surrounded by its own wall: so that Antioch be- came, as Strabo says (I. c.), a Tetrapolis. The first inhabitants (as indeed a great part of the materials) were brought from Antigonia. Besides these, the natives of the surrounding district were received in the new city; and Seleucus raised the Jews to the same political privileges with the Greeks. (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 31, c. Ap. ii. 4.) Thus a second city was formed contiguous to the first. It is probable that the Jews had a separate quarter, as at Alex- andreia. The citizens were divided into 18 tribes, distributed locally. There was an assembly of the people (Srifj.os, Liban. p. 321), which used to meet in the theatre, even in the time of Vespasian and Titus. (Tac. Hist. ii. 80; Joseph. B. J. vii. 5. 2, 3. 3.) At a later period we read of a senate of two hundred. (Jul. Misopog. p. 367.) The character of the inhabitants of Antioch may be easily de- scribed. The climate made them effeminate and luxurious. A high Greek civilisation was mixed with various Oriental elements, and especially with the superstitions of Chaldaean astrology, to which Chrysostom complains that even the Christians of his day were addicted. The love of frivolous amuse- ments became a passion in the contests of the Hippo- drome. On these occasions, and on many others, the violent feelings of the people broke out into open factions, and caused even bloodshed. Another fault should be mentioned as a marked characteristic of Antioch. Her citizens were singularly addicted to ridicule and scurrilous wit, anfl the invention of nicknames. Julian, who was himself a sufferer from this cause, said that Antioch contained more buf- foons than citizens. Apollonius of Tyana was treated in the same way; and the Antiochians provoked their own destruction by ridiculing the Persians in the invasion of Chosroes. (Procop. B. P. ii. 8.) To the same cause must be referred the origin of the name " Christian," which first came into exist- ence in this city. (Acts, xi. 26; Life, $c. of St. Paul, vol. i. p. 130. See page 146.) ANTIOCHEIA. 143 There is no doubt that the city built by Seleucus was on a regular and magnificent plan; but wo possess no details. Some temples and other build- ings were due to his son Antiochus Soter. Seleucus Callinicus built the New City(jT]v v4av, Liban. pp. 309, 356; TTJV Kaivrfv, Evag. Hist. Eccl. ii. 12) on the island, according to Strabo (I. c.), though Libanius assigns it to Antiochus the Great, who brought settlers from Greece during his war with the Romans (about 190 B. c.). To this writer, and to Evagrius, who describes what it suffered in the earthquake under Leo the Great, we owe a particular account of this part of the city. It was on an island (see below) which was joined to the old city by five bridges. Hence Polybius (v. 69) and Pliny (v. 21. s. 18) rightly speak of the Orontes as flow- ing through Antioch. The arrangement of the streets was simple and symmetrical. At their in- tersection was a fourfold arch (Tetrapylum). The magnificent Palace was on the north side, close upon the river, and commanded a prospect of the suburbs and the open country. Passing by Seleucus Philopator, of whose public works nothing is known, we come to the eighth of the Seleucidae, Antiochus Epiphanes. He was notoriously fond of building; and, by adding a fourth city to Antioch, he com- pleted the Tetrapolis. (Strab. I. c.) The city of Epiphanes was between the old wall and Mount Silpius ; and the new wall enclosed the citadel with many of the cliffs. (Procop. deAedif. I. c.) This monarch erected a senate-house (ftovXevr-hpiov), and a temple for the worship of Jupiter Capitolinus, which is described by Livy as magnificent with gold (Liv. xli. 20) ; but his great work was a vast street with double colonnades, which ran from east to west for four miles through the whole length of the city, and was perfectly level, though the ground originally was rugged and uneven. Other streets crossed it at right angles, to the river on one side, and the groves and gardens of the hill on the other. At the intersection of the principal street was the Omphalus, with a statue of Apollo; and where this street touched the river was the Nymphaeum (Nu/x^cuoj/, Evag. Hist. Eccl. 1. c. ; Tpivvfjuftov, Mai. p. 244). The position of the Omphalus is shown to have been opposite the ravine Parmenius, by some allusions hi the reign of Tiberius. No great change appears to have been made in the city during the interval be- tween Epiphanes and Tigranes. When Tigranes was compelled to evacuate Syria, Antioch was re- stored by Lucullus to Antiochus Philopator (Asiati- cus), who was a mere puppet of the Romans. He built, near Mount Silpius, a Museum, like that in Alexandreia; and to this period belongs the literary eminence of Antioch, which is alluded to by Cicero in his speech for Archias. (Cic. pro Arch. 3, 4.) At the beginning of the Roman period, it is pro- bable that Antioch covered the full extent of ground which it occupied till the time of Justinian. In magnitude it was not much inferior to Paris (C. 0. Muller, Antiq. Antioch.; see below), and the num- ber and splendour of the public buildings were very great; for the Seleucid kings and queens (Mai. p. 312) had vied with each other in embellishing their metropolis. But it received still further embellish- ment from a long series of Roman emperors. In B. c. 64, when Syria was reduced to a province, Pompey gave to Ajitioch the privilege of autonomy. The same privilege was renewed by Julius Caesar in a public edict (B. c. 47), and it was retained till Antoninus Pius made it a colonia. The era of 144 ANTIOCHEIA. ANTIOCHEIA. AA. City of Seleucus Nicator. BB. New City of Seleucus Calli- nious. CC. City of Antiochus Epiphanes. DD. Mount Silpius. EE. Modern Town. aa. Eiver Orontes. bb. Eoad to Seleuceia. cc. Eoad to Daphne. dd. Eavine Parmenius. ce. Wall of Epiphanes and Ti- berius. PLAN OF ANTIOCH. if. Wall of Theodosius. 2jg. Wall of Justinian, hh. Justinian's Ditch. ii. Godfrey's Camp. 1. Altar of Jupiter. 2. Amphitheatre. 3. Theatre. 4. Citadel. 5. Castle of the Crusaders. 6. Caesarium. 7. Omphalus. 8. Forum. 9. Senate House. 10. Museum. 11. Tancred's Castle. 12. Trajan's Aqueduct. 13. Hadrian's Aqueduct. 14. Caligula's Aqueduct. 15. Caesar's Aqueduct. 16. Xystus. 17. Herod's Colonnade. 18. Nymphaeum. 19. Palace. 20. Circus. Pharsalia was introduced at Antioch in honour of Caesar, who erected many public works there : among others, a theatre under the rocks of Silpius (rb vtri) T(f bpei frearpov*), and an amphitheatre, besides an aqueduct and baths, and a basilica called Caesarium. Augustus showed the same favour to the people of Antioch, and was similarly flattered by them, and the era of Actium was introduced into their system of chronology. In this reign Agrippa built a suburb, and Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. (Joseph. Ant. xvi. 5. 3, B. J. i. 21. 11.) The most memorable event of the reign of Tiberius, connected with Antioch, was the death of Germanicus. A long catalogue of works erected by successive emperors might be given; but it is enough to refer to the Chronographia of Ma- lala, which seems to be based on official documents*, and which may be easily consulted by means of the Index in the Bonn edition. We need only instance the baths of Caligula, Trajan, and Hadrian, the paving of the great street with Egyptian granite by Antoninus Pius, the Xystus or public walk built by Commodus, and the palace built by Diocletian, * Gibbon says : " We may distinguish his au- thentic information of domestic facts from his gross ignorance of general history." Ch. li. vol. ix. p. 414, ed. Milman. who also established there public stores and manufac- tures of arms. At Antioch two of the most striking calamities of the period were the earthquake of Trajan's reign, during which the emperor, who was then at Antioch, took refuge in the Circus : and the capture of the city by the Persians under Sapor in 260 A. D. On this occasion the citizens were in- tently occupied in the theatre, when the enemy sur- prised them from the rocks above. (Amm. Marc, xxiii. 5.) The interval between Constantino and Justinian may be regarded as the Byzantine period of the his- tory of Antioch. After the founding of Constanti- nople it ceased to be the principal city of the East. At the same time it began to be prominent as a Christian city, ranking as a Patriarchal see with Con- stantinople andAlexandreia. With the former of these cities it was connected by the great road through Asia Minor, and with the latter, by the coast road through Caesarea. (See Wesseling, Ant. Itin. p. 147; Itin. Hieros. p. 581.) Ten councils were held at Antioch between the years 252 and 380; and it became dis- tinguished by a new style of building, in connection with Christian worship. One church especially, begun by Constantino, and finished by his son, de- mands our notice. It was the same church which Julian closed and Jovian restored to Christian use, and the same in which Chrysostom preached. He AXT10CHEIA. describes it as richly ornamented with Mosul* an.l statues. The roof was domical (cratpoj5e's), and of great height; and in its octagonal plan it was similar to the church of St. Vitalis at Ravenna. (See Euseb. Vit. Const, iii. 50.) From the preva- lence of early churches of this form in the East, we must suppose either that this edifice set the example, or that this mode of church-building was already in fiiM-. Among other buildings, Antioch owed to Constantino a basilica, a praetorium for the resi- dence of the Count of the East, built of the ma- terials of the ancient Museum, and a xenon or hospice near the great church for the reception of travellers. Constantius spent much time at An- tioch, so that the place received the temporary name of Constantia. His great works were at the har- bour of Seleuceia, and the traces of them still remain. Julian took much pains to ingratiate himself with the people of Antioch. His disappointment is ex- pressed hi the Misopogon. Valens undertook great improvements at the time of his peace with the Per- sians, and opposite the ravine Parmenius he built a sumptuous forum, which was paved with marble, and decorated with Illyrian columns. Theodosius was compelled to adopt stringent measures against the citizens, hi consequence of the sedition and the breaking of the statues (A. D. 387, 388), and An- tioch was deprived of the rank of a metropolis. We are now brought to the time of Libanius, from whom we have so often quoted, and of Chrysostom, whose sermons contain so many incidental notices of his native city. Chrysostom gives the population at 200,000, of which 100,000 were Christians. In these numbers it is- doubtful whether we are to in- clude the children and the slaves. (See Gibbon, ch.xv. and Milman's note, vol. ii. p. 363.) For the detailed description of the public and private buildings of the city, we must refer the reader to Libanius. The increase of the suburb towards Daphne at this period induced Theodosius to build a new wall on this side. (See the Plan.) Passing over the reigns of Theo- dosius the Younger, who added new decorations to the city, and of Leo the Great, in whose time it was desolated by an earthquake, we come to a period which was made disastrous by quarrels hi the Hippo- drome, massacres of the Jews, internal factions and war from without. After an earthquake hi the reign of Justin, A. D. 526, the city was restored by Ephrem, who was Count of the East, and after- wards Patriarch. The reign of Justinian is one of the most important eras in the history of Antioch. was rising under him into fresh splendour, when was again injured by an earthquake, and soon terwards (A. D. 538) utterly desolated by the in- vasion of the Persians under Chosroes. The ruin of the city was complete. The citizens could scarcely find the sites of their own houses. Thus an entirely new city (which received the new name of Theit- polis) rose under Justinian. In dimensions it was considerably less than the former, the wall retiring from the river on the east, and touching it only at one point, and also including a smaller portion of the cliffs of Mount Silpius. This wall evidently corresponds with the notices of the fortifications in the times of the crusaders, if we make allowance for the inflated language of Procopius, who is our au- thority for the public works of Justinian. The history of Antioch during the medieval period was one of varied fortunes, but, on the whole, of gradual decay. It was first lost to the Roman em- pire in the time of Heraclius (A. D. 635), and taken, ANTIOCHEIA. 145 with the wk)le of Syria, by the Saracens in the lirst burst of their military enthusiasm. It was recovered in the 10th century under Nicephorus Phocas, by a surprise similar to that by which the Persians be- came masters of it; and its strength, population, and magnificence are celebrated by a writer of the period (Leo Diac. p. 73), though its appearance had doubtless undergone considerable changes during four centuries of Mahoinedan occupation. It re- mained subject to the emperor of Constantinople till the time of the first Comneni, when it was taken by the Seljuks (A. D. 1084). Fourteen years later (A. D. 1098) it was besieged by the Latins in the first Crusade. Godfrey pitched his camp by the ditch which had been dug under Justinian, and Tancred erected a fort near the western wall. (See the Plan.) The cky was taken on the 3d of June, 1098. Boemond I., the son of Robert Guiscard, became prince of Antioch ; and its history was again Christian for nearly two centuries, till the tune of Boemond VI., when it fell under the power of the Sultan of Egypt and his Mamelukes (A. D. 1268). From this time its declension seems to have been rapid and continuous: whereas, under the Franks, it appears to have been still a strong and splendid city. So it is described by Phocas (Acta Sanct. Mai. vol. v. p. 299), and by William of Tyre, who is the great Latin authority for its history during this period. (See especially iv. 9 14, v. 23, vi. 1, 15; and compare xvi. 26, 27.) It is unnecessary for our purpose to describe the various fortunes of the families through which the Frankish principality of Antioch was transmitted from the first to the seventh Boemond. A full account of them, and of the coins by which they are illustrated, will be found in De Saulcy, Numismatique des Croisades, pp. 1 27. We may consider the modern history of Antioch as coincident with that of European travellers in the Levant. Beginning with De la Brocquiere, in the 15th century, we find the city already sunk into a state of insignificance. He says that it contained only 300 houses, inhabited by a few Turks and Arabs. The modern Antakieh is a poor town, situated hi the north-western quarter of the ancient city, by the river, which is crossed by a substantial bridge. No accurate statement can be given of its population. One traveller states it at 4000, another at 10,000. In the census taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1835, when he thought of making it again the capital of Syria, it was said to be 5600. The Christians have no church. The town occupies only a small portion (some say ^, some , some ^) of the ancient enclosure; and a wide space of unoccupied ground intervenes between it and the eastern or Aleppo gate (called, after St. Paul, Bdb-Boulous), near which are the remains of ancient pavement. The walls (doubtless those of Justinian) may be traced through a circuit of four miles. They are built partly of stone, and partly of Roman tiles, and were flanked by strong towers; and till the earth- quake of 1822 some of them presented a magni- ficent appearance on the cliffs of Mount Silpius. The height of the wall differs in different places, and tra- vellers are not agreed on the dimensions assigned to them. Among the recent travellers who have de- scribed Antioch, we may make particular mention of Pococke, Kinneir, Niebuhr, Buckingham, Richter ( Wallfahrten im Morgenlande}, and Michaud et Poujoulat (Correspondance d'Orient, &c.). Since the earthquake which has just been mentioned, the most important events at Antioch have been its L 146 ANTIOCHEIA. occupation by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, and the Eu- phrates expedition, conducted by Col. Chesney. (See the recently published volumes, London, 1850.) Tha annexed figure represents the Genius of An- tioch^ for so with Ammianus Marcellmus (xxiii. 1), a native of the place, we may translate the Tvxn 'AvTioxeias, or the famous allegorical statue, which personified the city. It was the work of Eutychides of Sicyon, a pupil of Lysippus, whose school of art was closely connected with the Mace- donian princes. It represented Antioch as a female figure, seated on the rock Silpius and crowned with towers, with ears of corn, and sometimes a palm branch in her hand, and with the river Orontes at her feet. This figure appears constantly on the later coins of Antioch; and it is said to have some- times decorated the official chairs of the Roman praetors in the provinces, in conjunction with repre- sentations of Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople. The engraving here given is from a statue of the tune of Septimius Severus in the Vatican. (Visconti, Musf.o Pio Ckmentino, iii. 46.) The original statue was placed within a ceH of four columns, open on all sides, near the river Orontes, and ultimately within the Nymphaeum. A conjectural plan of the ancient city is given hi Michaud's Histoire des Croisades (vol. ii.). But the best is in C. 0. Miiller's Antiquitates Antio- chenae (Gottingen, 1839), from which ours is taken. Miiller's work contains all the materials for the his- tory of Antioch. A compendious account of this city is given in Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul (London, 1850 52), from which work some part of the present article has been taken. [I. S. H.] COIN OF ANTIOCH. ANTIOCHEIA. 1. CALLIRRHOE. [EDESSA.] 2. MYGDONIAE. [NisiBis.] 3. CILICIAE, is placed by Stephanus (s. v. 'Avrio- X* a) on the river Pyramus in Cilicia, and the Stadi- asmus agrees with him. But Cramer observes (Asia ANTIOCHEIA. Minor, vol. ii. p. 353), that there are medals with the epigraph A^Tioxecoi/ TUV -jrpos TOIL Sapojt, by which the same place is probably meant, though, according to the medals, it was on the Sarus. 4. AD CKAGUM ('Ai/nox 6 "* eVt Kpd-yw, Ptol. v. 8. 2). Strabo (p. 669) mentions a rock Cragus on the coast of Cilicia, between the river Selinus and the fort and harbour of Charadrus. Appian (Miihrid. c. 96) mentions both Cragus and Anticragus in Ci- licia as very strong forts; but there may be some error here. Beaufort (Karamania, p. 193) con- jectures that the site may be between Selinty and Karadran (the Charadrus of Strabo) : he observed several columns there " whose shafts were single blocks of polished red granite." A square cliff, the top of which projects into the sea, has been forti- fied. There is also a flight of steps cut in the rock leading from the landing place to the gates. 5. AD MAEANDRUM ('A. Trpbs Mcuaj/Spp), a small city on the Maeander, in Caria, hi the part adjacent to Phrygia. There was a bridge there. The city had a large and fertile territory on both sides of the river, which was noted for its figs. The tract was subject to earthquakes. (Strab. p. 630.) Pliny (v. 29) says that the town was surrounded by the Orsinus, or Mosynus, as some read the name, by which he seems to mean that it is in the angle formed by the junction of this small river with the Maeander. Hamilton (Researches, A.vri6xfia) among the cities of this- name (M r$ Toupy 4v Kofj./jiayrivfj). It is also mentioned by Ptolemy (v. 10. 10). There seems no sufficient evidence for fixing its position. Some geographers place it at Amtab, about 70 miles N. by E. from Aleppo. [G. L.] ANTIPATRIA or -EA, a town of Illyricum situated on the right bank of the Apsus, in a narrow pass. (Liv. xxxi. 27; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. p. 361.) ANTIPATRIS ('Arnvarpts : Eth. 'AirnraTpf- T?js),a city built by Herod the Great, and named after his father Antipater. It was situated in a well- watered and richly-wooded plain named Caphar- saba (KcwpaptraSo, al. Xaapda, Joseph. Ant. xvi. 5. 2), so called from a more ancient town, whose site the new city occupied. (Ib. xiii. 15. 1.) A stream ran round the city. Alexander Jannaeus, when threatened with an invasion by Antiochus (Dionysus), drew a deep trench between this place, which was situated near the mountains, and the sea at Joppa, a distance of 1 20 stadia. The ditch was fortified with a wall and towers of wood, which were taken and burnt by Antiochus, and the trench was filled up. {B. J. i. 4. 7 ; comp. Ant. xiii. 15. 1.) It lay on the road between Caesareia and Jerusalem. {B. J. ii. 19. 1.) Here it was that the escort of Hoplites, who had accompanied St. Paul on his nocturnal journey from Jerusalem, left him to proceed with the horsemen to Caesareia. (Acts, xxiii. 31.) Its ancient name and site is still preserved by a Muslim village of considerable size, built entirely of mud, on a slight circular eminence near the western hills of the coast of Palestine, about three hours north of Jaffa. No ruins, nor indeed the least vestige of antiquity, is to be discovered. The water, too, has entirely disappeared. (Mr. Eli Smith, in Biblio- theca Sacra, 1843, p. 493.) [G. W.] ANTIPHELLUS ('AvTicpeAAos: Eth. 'Arr^eA- AITTJS and'Aj'Ti^eAAeiTTjs: Antephelo or Andifilo), a town of Lycia, on the south coast, at the head of a bay. An inscription copied by Fellows at this place, contains the ethnic name ANTI*EAAEITOT {Discoveries in Lycia, p. 186). The little theatre of Antiphellus is complete, with the exception of the proscenium. Fellows gives a page of drawings of specimens of ends of sarcophagi, pediments, and doors of tombs. Strabo (p. 666) incorrectly places Antiphellus among the inland towns. Beaufort (Karamania, p. 13) gives the name of Vathy to the bay at the head of which Antiphellus stands, and he was the discoverer of this ancient site There is a ground-plan of Antiphellus in Spratt's Lycia. There are corns of Antiphellus of the im- perial period, with the epigraph 'AvTi^eAAem^ Nothing is known of the history of this place. PHELLUS (*e'AAos) is mentioned by Strabo with Antiphellus. Fellows places the site of Phellus near a village called Saaret, WNW. of Antiphellus, and separated from it by mountains. He found on a summit the remains of a town, and inscriptions in Greek characters, but too much defaced to be legible. Spratt {Lycia, vol. i. p. 66) places the Pyrrha of Pliny (v. 27) at Saaret, and this position agrees better with Pliny's words : " Antiphellos quac quondam Habessus; atque in recessu Phellus; deinde Pyrrha itemque Xanthus," &c. It is mor L 2 148 ANTIPHRAE. consistent with this passage to look for Phellus north of Antiphellus, than in any other direction; and the ruins at Tchookoorbye, north of Antiphel- lus, on the spur of a mountain called Fellerdagh, seem to be those of Phellus. These ruins, which are not those of a large town, are described in Spratt's Lycia. [<* L.] ANTIPHRAE ('Arrf^pai, Strab. ami. p. 799; 'Avrtypa, Steph. B., PtoL; 'Amftprf, Hierocl. p. 734 : Eih. 'AvTia?os), a small inland town of the Libyae Nomos, not far from the sea, and a little W. of Alexandria, celebrated for its poor " Libyan wine," which was drunk by the lower classes of Alexandria mixed with sea-water, and which seems to have been an inferior description of the " Mareotic wine " of Virgil and Horace (Georg. ii. 91, Carm. i.37.14; comp. Ath. i. p. 33, Lucan. x. 160). [P. S.] ANTI'POLIS ('Ai>Ti7roAiy: Eth. Antipolitanus : Antibes), a town in Gallia Narbonensis. D'Anville (Notice, &c.) observes that he believes that this town has preserved the name of Antiboul in the Proven9al idiom. It was founded by the Greeks of Massalia (Marseille) hi the country of the Deciates ; and it was one of the settlements which Massalia established with a view of checking the Salyes and the Ligurians of the Alps. (Strab. p. 180.) It was on- the maritime Koman road which ran along this coast. Antibes is on the sea, on the east side of a small peninsula a few miles W. of the mouth of the Varus ( Far). It contains the remains of a theatre, and of some Roman constructions. Strabo states (p. 184), that though Antipolis was in Gallia Narbonensis, it was released from the jurisdiction of Massalia, and reckoned among the Italian towns, while Nicaea, which was east of the Var and hi Italy, still remained a dependency of Massalia. Tacitus (Hist. ii. 15) calls it a muni- cipium of Narbonensis Gallia, which gives us no exact information. Pliny (iii. 4) calls it " op- pidum Latinum," by which he means that it had the Jus Latium or Latinitas ; but the passage in Strabo has no precise meaning, unless we suppose that Antipolis had the Jus Italicum. Antipolis, however, is not mentioned with the two Gallic cities, Lugdunum and Vienna (Dig. 50. tit. 15. s. 8), which were Juris Italici; and we may perhaps, though with some hesitation, take the statement of Pliny in preference to that of Strabo. There are coins of Antipolis. It seems to have had some tunny fisheries, and to have prepared a pickle (muria) for fish. (Plin. xxxi. 8 ; Martial, xiii. 103.) [G. L.] ANTIQUA'RIA (Ant. Itin. p. 412 : Antequera), a municipium of Hispania Baetica. Its name oc- curs in the form Anticaria in inscriptions, and there is a coin with the legend ANTIK., the reference of which to this place Eckhel considers very doubt- ful. (Muratori, p. 1026, nos. 3, 4; Florez, Med. de Esp. vol. ii. p. 633 ; Eckhel, vol. i. p. 14 ; Rasche, . v. ANTIK.) [P. S.] ANTI'BBHIUM. [ACHAIA, p. 13, a.] ANTISSA ("Ai"n, Horn. Strab.; 'Avrpuves, Dem. : Eth. 'Avrpuvios : Fand), a town of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, at the entrance of the Maliac gulf, and opposite Oreus in Euboea. It is mentioned in the Iliad (ii. 697) as one of the cities of Protesilaus, and also in the Homeric hymn to Demeter (489) as under the protection of that god- dess. It was purchased by Philip of Macedon, and was taken by the Romans in their war with Perseus. (Dem. Phil iv. p. 133, Reiske; Liv. xlii. 42, 67.) It probably owed its long existence to the composition of its rocks, which furnished some of the best mill- stones in Greece; hence the epithet of TrerpTJeis given to it in the hymn to Demeter (I. c.). Off Antron was a sunken rock (epfj.a va\ov) called the "O^os 'Avrpuvos, or mill-stone of Antron. (Strab. p. 435 ; Steph. B. s. v, ; Hesych. s. v. MvA?7 ; Eustath. in II. 1. c.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 349.) ANTUNNACUM (Andernach), a Roman post on the left bank of the Rhine, in the territory of the Ubii. [TRBVIRI.] It is placed in the Itineraries, on the road that ran along the west bank of the river ; and it is also placed by Ammianus Marcellinus (xviii. 2) between Bonna (Bonn) and Bingium (Bingen), in his list of the seven towns on the Rhine, which Ju- lianus repaired during his government of Gaul. Antunnacum had been damaged or nearly destroyed by the Germans, with other towns on this bank of the Rhine. Antunnacum is proved by inscriptions to have been, at one time, the quarters of the Legio X. Gemina; and the transition to the modern appellation appears from its name " Anternacha," in the Geographer of Ravenna. (Forbiger, Handbuch der alten Geog. vol. iii. p. 155, 248.) The wooden bridge which Caesar constructed (B.C. 55) for the purpose of conveying his troops across the Rhine into Germany, was probably be- tween Andemach and Coblenz, and perhaps nearer Andernach. The passages of Caesar from which we must attempt to determine the position of his bridge, for he gives no names of places to guide us, are : B.G. iv. 15, &c., vi. 8, 35. [G. L.] ANXANUM or ANXA( y A7|a>oj/: Eth. Aswan, Plin. ; Anxas, -atis, Anxianus, Inscrr.) 1 . A city of the Frentani, situated on a hill about 5 miles from the Adriatic, and 8 from the mouth of the river Sagrus or Sangro. It is not mentioned in history, but is noticed both by Pliny and Ptolemy among the cities of the Frentani; and from numerous inscriptions which have been discovered on the site, it appears to have been a municipal town of considerable import- ance. Its territory appears to have been assigned to military colonists by Julius Caesar, but it did not retain the rank of a colony. (Plin. iii. 12. s. 17 ; Ptol. iii. ] . 65 ; Lib. Colon, p. 259 ; Zumpt, de Colon, p. 307.) The name is retained by the modem city of Lanciano (the see of an archbishop, and one of the most populous and flourishing places in this part of Italy), but the original site of the ancient city appears to have been at a spot called II Castellare, near the church of Sta. Giusta, about a mile to the NE. of the modern town, where nume- rous inscriptions, as well as foundations and vestiges AORNUS. of ancient buildings, have been discovered. Other inscriptions, and remains of an aqueduct, mosaic pavements, &c., have also been found in the part of the present city still called Lanciano Vecchio, which thus appears to have been peopled at least under the Roman empire. From one of these inscriptions it would appear that Anxanum had already become an important emporium or centre of trade for all the surrounding country, as it continued to be during the middle ages, and to which it still owes its present importance. (Romanelli, vol. iii. pp. 55 62 ; Gius- tiniani, Diz. Geogr. vol. v. pp. 196 205.) The Itineraries give the distances from Anxanum to Or- tona at xiii. miles (probably an error for viii.), to Pallanum xvi., and to Histonium (II Vasto} xxv. (Itin. Ant. p. 313; Tab. Peut.) 2. A town of Apulia situated on the coast of the Adriatic, between Sipontum and the mouth of the Aufidus. The Tab. Peut. places it at 9 M. P. from the former city, a distance which coincides with the Torre di RivoU, where there are some ancient re- mains. (Romanelli, vol. ii. p. 204.) [E. H. B.] ANXUR. [TAERACINA.] A'ONES ("Aoves), the name of some of the most ancient inhabitants of Boeotia, who derived their origin from Aon, a son of Poseidon. (Strab. p. 401, seq. ; Paus. ix. 5. 1 ; Lycophr. 1209 ; Ant. Lib. 25 ; Steph. B. s. vv. "Aoves, Botwrfo.) They appear to have dwelt chiefly in the rich plains about Thebes, a portion of which was called the Aonian plain in the time of Strabo (p. 412). Both by the Greek and Roman writers Boeotia is frequently called Aonia, and the adjective Aonius is used as synonymous with Boeotian. (Callim. Del. 75; Serv. ad Virg. Aen. vi. 65; Gell. xiv. 6.) Hence the Muses, who frequented Mt. Helicon in Boeotia, are called Aonides and Aoniae Sorores. (Ov. Met. v. 333; Juv. vii. 58, et alibi; cf. Miiller, Orchomenos, p. 124, seq. 2nd ed.) AO'NIA. [AONES.] AORNUS (r)"Aopvos werpa, i. e. the RocTc inac- cessible to birds). 1. In India intra Gangem, a lofty and precipitous rock, where the Indians of the country N. of the Indus, between it and the Cophen (Cabul), and particularly the people of Bazira, made a stand against Alexander, B. c. 327. (Ar- rian. Anab. iv. 28, foil., Ind. 5. 10; Diod. xvii. 85; Curt. viii. 11; Strab. xv. p. 688.) It is de- scribed as 200 stadia in circuit, and from 11 to 16 in height (nearly 7000 10,000 feet), perpen- dicular on all sides, and with a level summit, abounding in springs, woods, and cultivated ground. It seems to have been commonly used as a refuge in war, and was regarded as impregnable. The tradition, that Hercules had thrice failed to take it, inflamed still more Alexander's constant ambition of achieving seeming impossibilities. By a com- bination of stratagems and bold attacks, which are related at length by the historians, he drove the Indians to desert the post in a sort of panic, and, setting upon them in their retreat, destroyed most of them. Having celebrated his victory with sacri- fices, and erected on the mountain altars to Minerva and Victory, he established there a garrison under the command of Sisicottus. It is impossible to determine, with certainty, the po- sition of Aornos. It was clearly somewhere on the N. side of the Indus, in the angle between it and the Cophen (CabuT). It was very near a city called Em- bolima, on the Indus, the name of which points to a position at the mouth of some tributary river. This 1 AORSI. seems to be the only ground on which Ritter places Embolima at the confluence of the Cophen and the Indus. But the whole course of the narrative, in the historians, seems clearly to require a position ] sillier up the Indus, at the mouth of the Burrindoo for example. That Aornus itself also was close to the Indus, is stated by Diodorus, Curtius, and Stnibo; and though the same would scarcely be inferred from Arrian, he says nothing positively to the contrary. The mistake of Strabo, that the i the rock is washed by the Indus near its source, is not so very great as might at first sight appear; for, in common with the other ancient ;.'LTuphers, he understands by the source of the Indus, the place where it breaks through the chain of the Himalaya. The name Aornus is an example of the signifi- cant appellations which the Greeks were fond of usiiii;, either as corruptions of, or substitutes for, the native names. In like manner, Dionysius Pe- riegetes calls the Himalaya "Aopvis (1151). [P. S.] 2. A city in Bactriana. Arrian (iii. 29) speaks of Aornus and Bactra as the largest cities in the country of the Bactrii. Aornus had an acropolis (aKpct), hi which Alexander left a garrison after taking the place. There is no indication of its site, except that Alexander took it before he reached Oreus. [G. L.l AORSI ("Aopcrot: Sfrab., Ptol., Plin., Steph. B.), or ADORSI (Tac. Ann, xii. 15), a numerous and powerful people, both in Europe and in Asia. Ptolemy (iii. 5. 22) names the European Aorsi among the peoples of Sarmatia, between the Venedic Gulf (Baltic) and the Rhipaean mountains (i. e. in the eastern part of Prussia), and places them S. of the Agathyrsi, and N. of the Pagyritae. The Asiatic Aorsi he places in Scythia intra Imaum, on the NE. shore of the Caspian, between the Asiotae, who dwelt E. of the mouth of the river Rha (Volga), and the Jaxartae, who extended to the river Jaxartes (vi. 14. 10). The latter is supposed to have been the original position of the people, as Strabo expressly states (xi. p. 506); but of course the same question arises as in the case of the other great tribes found both in Euro- pean Sarmatia and Asiatic Scythia; and so Eich- wald seeks the original abodes of the Aorsi in the Russian province of Vologda, on the strength of the resemblance of the name to that of the Finnish race of the Erse, now found there. (Geog. d. Casp. Meeres, pp. 358, foil.) Pliny mentions the Euro- pean Aorsi, with the Hamaxobii, as tribes of the Sarmatians, in the general sense of that word, in- cluding the " Scythian races " who dwelt along the N. coast of the Euxine E. of the mouth of the Danube; and more specifically, next to the Getae (iv. 12. s. 25. xi. s. 18). The chief seat of the Aorsi, and where they ap- pear in history, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Caucasus. Here Strabo places (xi. p. 492), S. of the nomade Scythians, who dwell on waggons, the Sarmatians, who are also Scythians, namely the Aorsi and Siraci, extending to the S. as far as the Caucasian mountains; some of them being nomades, and others dwelling in tents, and cultivating the land (aK-nv'n-ai KOL\ 7ewp7oi). Further on (p. 506), he speaks more particularly of the Aorsi and Siraci; but the meaning is obscured by errors in the text. The sense seems to be, as given in Groskurd's translation, that there were tribes of the Aorsi and AOUS. 151 the Siraci on the E. side of the Pal us Maeotis (Sea of Azov), the former dwelling on the Tanais, and the latter further to the S. on the Achardeus, a river flowing from the Caucasus into the Maeotis. Both were powerful, for when Pharnaces (the son of Mithridates the Great) held the kingdom of Bosporus, he was furnished with 20,000 horsemen by Abeacus, king of the Siraci, and with 200,000 by Spadines, king of the Aorsi. But both these peoples are regarded by Strabo as only exiles of the great nation of the Aorsi, who dwelt further to the north (TWV avwTfpw, ol avoolAopaoi), and who as- sisted Pharnaces with a still greater force. These more northern Aorsi, he adds, possessed the greater part of the coast of the Caspian, and carried on an extensive traffic in Indian and Babylonian merchan- dize, which they brought on camels from Media and Armenia. They were rich and wore ornaments of gold. In A. D. 50, the Aorsi, or, as Tacitus calls them, Adorsi, aided Cotys, king of Bosporus, and the Romans with a body of cavalry, against the rebel Mithridates, who was assisted by the Siraci. (Tac. Ann. xii. 15.) Some modern writers attempt to identify the Aorsi with the Avars, so celebrated in Byzantine and medieval history. [P. S.] AO'US, more rarely AEAS ("Ao>os, 'Awos, 'Aos, Pol. Strab. Liv.: Alas, Hecat. ap. Strab. p. 316; Scylax, s. v. 'I\\vpioi-, Steph. B. 5. v. AaKficav; Val. Max. i. 5. ext. 2; erroneously called ANIUS, "Avios by Plut. Goes. 38, and ANAS, "Amy, by Dion Cass. xii. 45 : Viosa, Vuissa, Vovussa), the chief river of Illyria, or Epirus Nova, rises in Mount Lacmon, the northern part of the range of Mount Pindus, flows in a north-westerly direction, then " suddenly turns a little to the southward of west; and having pursued this course for 12 miles, between two mountains of extreme steepness, then recovers its north-western direction, which it pursues to the sea," into which it falls a little S. of Apollonia. (Herod, ix. 93; Strab., Steph. B., U. cc.; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 384.) The two moun- tains mentioned above approach very near each other, and form the celebrated pass, now called the Stena of the Viosa, and known in antiquity by the name of the FAUCES ANTIGONENSES, from its vi- cinity to the city of Antigoneia. (Fauces ad An- tigoneam, Liv. xxxii. 5 ; ra Trap' 'At>Tiy6vfiav Aa?s) of the Marsyas, and the river flows through the middle of the city, having its origin in the city, and being carried down to the suburbs with a violent and precipitous current it joins the Maeander." This passage may not be free from corruption, but it is not improved by Groskurd's emendation (German Transl. of Strabo, vol. ii. p. 531). Strabo observes that the Maeander receives, before its junction with the Marsyas, a *tream called Orgas, which flows gently through a level country [MAEANDER]. This rapid stream is called Catarrhactes by Herodotus (vii. 26). The site of Apameia is now fixed at Denair, where there is a river corresponding to Strabo's description (Ha- milton, Researches, rfc. vol. ii. p. 499). Leake (Asia Minor, p. 156, &c.) has collected the ancient testimonies as to Apameia. Arundell (Discoveries, ^c., vol. i. p. 201) was the first who clearly saw that Apameia must be at Denair; and his conclu- sions are confirmed by a Latin inscription which he found on the fragment of a white marble, which re- corded the erection of some monument at Apameia by the negotiatores resident there. Hamilton copied several Greek inscriptions at Denair (Appendix, vol. ii.). The name Cibotus appears on some coins of Apameia, and it has been conjectured that it was so called from the wealth that was collected in this great emporium; for Kiur6s is a chest or coffer. Pliny (v. 29) says that it was first Celaenae, then Cibotus, and then Apameia; which cannot be quite correct, because Celaenae was a different place from Apameia, though near it. But there may have been a place on the site of Apameia, which was called Cibotus. There are the remains of a theatre and other ancient ruins at Denair. When Strabo wrote Apameia was a place of great trade in the Roman province of Asia, next in im- portance to Ephesus. Its commerce was owing to position on the great road to Cappadocia, and it also the centre of other roads. When Cicero was proconsul of Cilicia, B.C. 51, Apameia was within his jurisdiction (ad Fam. xiii. 67), but the dioecesis, or conventus, of Apameia was afterwards attached to the province of Asia. Pliny enumerates six towns which belonged to the conventus of Apa- meia, and he observes that there were nine others of little note. The country about Apameia has been shaken by earthquakes, one of which is recorded as having happened in the time of Claudius (Tacit. Ann. xii. 58) ; and on this occasion the payment of taxes to the Romans was remitted for five years. Nico- laus of Damascus (Athen. p. 332) records a violent earthquake at Apameia at a previous date, during the Mithridatic war: lakes appeared where none were before, and rivers and springs ; and many which existed before disappeared. Strabo (p. 579) speaks of this great catastrophe, and of other convulsions at an earlier period. Apameia continued to be a prosperous town under the Roman empire, and is enumerated by Hierocles among the episcopal cities of Pisidia, to which division it had been transferred. The bishops of Apameia sat in the councils of Ni- caea. Arundell contends that Apameia, at an early period in the history of Christianity, had a church, and he confirms this opinion by the fact of there being the ruins of a Christian church there. It is probable enough that Christianity was early esta- APENNINUS. 15.3 here, and even that St. Paul visited the place, for he went throughout Phrygia. But the mere circumstance of the remains of a church at Apameia proves nothing as to the time when Chris- tianity was established there. COIN OF APAMEIA, IN PHRYGIA. 6. A city of Parthia, near Rhagae (Rey) Rhagae was 500 stadia from the Caspiae Pylae. (Strab. p. 513.) Apameia was one of the towns built in these parts by the Greeks after the Mace- donian conquests in Asia. It seems to be the same Apameia which is mentioned by Ammianus Mar- cellinus (xxiii. 6). [G. L.] APANESTAE, or APENESTAE (A^eWi), a town on the coast of Apulia, placed by Ptolemy among the Daunian Apulians, near Sipontum. Pliny, on the contrary, enumerates the APAENES- TINI, probably the same people, among the " Cala- brorum Mediterranei." But it has been plausibly conjectured that ;t Arnesto," a name otherwise un- known, which appears in the Itin. Ant. (p. 315), between Barium and Egnatia, is a corruption of the same name. If this be correct, the distances there given would lead us to place it at S. Vito, 2 miles W. of Polignano, where there are some remains of an ancient town. (Plin. in. 11, 16; Ptol. iii. 1. 16; Romanelli, vol. ii. p. 155.) [E. H. B.] APARNI. [PARNI.] APATU'RUM, or APATU'RUS ('Airdrovpoi', Strab.; 'Airarovpos, Steph. B., Ptol.), a town of the Sindae, on the Pontus Euxinus, near the Bos- porus Cimmerius, which was almost uninhabited in Pliny's time. It possessed a celebrated temple of Aphrodite Apaturus (the Deceiver) ; and there was also a temple to this goddess hi the neighbouring town of Phanagoria. (Strab. xi. p. 495; Plin. vi. 6; Ptol. v. 9. 5; Steph. B. s. v.j APAVARCTICE'NE ('Ajrauap/c-n/cT?^, Isid. Char. pp. 2, 7, ed. Hudson; 'ApTi/crji/TJ, or Ua.pa.vK- TiKTyvf), Ptol. vi. 5. 1 ; APAVORTENE, Plin. vi. 16. s. 18; ZAPAORTENE, Justin, xli. 5), a district of Parthia, in the south-eastern part of the country, with a strongly fortified city, called Dareium, or Dara, built by Arsaces I., situated on the mountain of the Zapaorteni. (Justin. I. c.) APENNI'NUS MONS (6 'Airwwos, TO 'AWz/- vivov opos. The singular form is generally used, in Greek as well as Latin, but both Polybius and Strabo occasionally have TCI 'Airevviva tipi). In Latin the singular only is used by the best writers). The Apennines, a. chain of mountains which traverses almost the whole length of Italy, and may be con- sidered as constituting the backbone of that coun- try, and detennim'ng its configuration and physical characters. The name is probably of Celtic origin, and contains the root Pen, a head or height, which is found in all the Celtic dialects. Whether it may originally have been applied to some particular mass or group of mountains, from which it was subse- quently extended to the whole chain, as the singular 154 APENNINUS. form of the name might lead us to suspect, is un- certain: but the more extensive use of the name is fully established, when it first appears in history. The general features and direction of the chain are well described both by Polybius and Strabo, who speak of the Apennines as extending from their junction with the Alps in an unbroken range almost to the Adriatic Sea; but turning off as they ap- proached the coast (in the neighbourhood of Arimi- num and Ancona), and extending from thence throughout the whole length of Italy, through Samnium, Lucania, and Bruttium, until they ended at the promontory of Leucopetra, on the Sicilian Sea. Polybius adds, that throughout their course from the plaias of the Padus to their southern ex- tremity they formed the dividing ridge between the waters which flowed respectively to the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas. The same thing is stated by Lucan, whose poetical description of the Apennines is at the same time distinguished by geographical accuracy. (Pol. ii. 16, iii. 110;-Strab. ii. p. 128, v. p. 211; Ptol.iii. l. 44; Lucan. ii. 396438; Claudian. de VI. Cons. Hon. 286.) But an accu- rate knowledge of the course and physical characters of this range of mountains is so necessary to the clear comprehension of the geography of Italy, and the history of the nations that inhabited the diffe- rent provinces of the peninsula, that it will be de- sirable to give in tins place a more detailed account of the physical geography of the Apennines. There was much difference of opinion among ancient, as well as modern, geographers, in regard to the point they assigned for the commencement of the Apennines, or rather for their junction with the Alps, of which they may, in fact, be considered only as a great offshoot. Polybius describes the Apennines as extending almost to the neighbourhood of Massilia, so that he must have comprised under this appellation all that part of the Maritime Alps, which extend along the sea-coast to the west of Genoa, and even beyond Nice towards Marseilles. Other writers fixed on the port of Hercules Monoecus {Monaco} as the point of demarcation: but Strabo extends the name of the Maritime Alps as far E. as Vada Sabbata ( Facfo), and says that the Apennines begin about Genoa: a distinction apparently hi ac- cordance with the usage of the Romans, who fre- quently apply the name of the Maritime Alps to the country of the Ingauni, about Albenga. (Liv. xxviii. 46; Tac. Hist. ii. 12.) Nearly the same distinction has been adopted by the best modem geographers, who have regarded the Apennines as commencing from the neighbourhood of Savona, im- mediately at the back of which the range is so low that the pass between that city and Carcare, in the valley of the Bormida, does not exceed the height of 1300 feet. But the limit must, in any case, be an arbitrary one: there is no real break or inter- ruption of the mountain chain. The mountains be- hind Genoa itself are still of very moderate elevation, but after that the range increases rapidly in height, as well as breadth, and extends in a broad unbroken mass almost in a direct line (in an ESE. direction) till it approaches the coast of the Adriatic. Through- out this part of its course the range forms the southern limit of the great plain of Northern Italy, which extends without interruption from the foot of the Apennines to that of the Alps. Its highest summits attain an elevation of 5000 or 6000 feet, while its average height ranges between 3000 and 4000 feet. Its northern declivity presents a re- APENXIXUS. markable uniformity : the long ranges of hills which descend from the central chain, nearly at right angles to its direction, constantly approaching within a few miles of the straight line of the Via Aemilia throughout its whole length from Ariminum to Placentia, but without ever crossing it. On its southern side, on the contrary, it sends out several detached arms, or lateral ranges, some of which attain to an elevation little inferior to that of the central chain. Such is the lofty and rugged ran.oe which separates the vallies of the Macra and Auser (Serchio), and contains the celebrated marble quar- ries of Carrara ; the highest point of which (the Pizzo dUccello) is not less than 5800 feet above the sea. Similar ridges, though of somewhat less elevation, divide the upper and lower vallies of the Arnus from each other, as well as that of the Tiber from the former. But after approaching within a short distance of the Adriatic, so as to send down its lower slopes within a few miles of Ariminum, the chain of the Apennines suddenly takes a turn to the SSE., and assumes a direction parallel to the coast of the Adriatic, which it preserves, with little alteration, to the frontiers of Lucania. It is in this part of the range that all the highest summits of the Apennines are found: the Monti della Sibilla, in which are the sources of the Nar (Nero) rise to a height of 7200 feet above the sea, while the Monte Corno, or Gran Sasso d Italia, near Aquila, the loftiest summit of the whole chain, attains to an elevation of 9500 feet. A little farther S. is the Monte Majella, a huge mountain mass between Sulmo and the coast of the Adriatic, not less than 9000 feet in height, while the Monte Velino, N. of the Lake Fucinus, and nearly in the centre of the peninsula, attains to 8180 feet, and the Monte Terminillo, near Leonessa, NE. of Rieti, to above 7000 feet. It is especially in these Central Apennines that the peculiar features of the chain develope themselves. Instead of presenting, like the Alps and the more northern Apennines, one great uniform ridge, with transverse vallies leading down from it towards the sea on each side, the Central Apennines constitute a mountain mass of very considerable breadth, com- posed of a number of minor ranges and groups of mountains, which, notwithstanding great irregula- rities and variations, preserve a general parallelism of direction, and are separated by upland vallies, some of which are themselves of considerable ele- vation and extent. Thus the basin of Lake Fucinus, in the centre of the whole mass, and almost exactly midway between the two seas, is at a level of 2180 feet above the sea; the upper valley of the Aternus, near Amiternum, not less than 2380 feet; while between the Fucinus and the Tyrrhenian Sea we find the upper vallies of the Luis and the Anio running parallel to one another, but separated by lofty mountain ranges from each other and from the basin of the Fucinus. Another peculiarity of the Apennines is that the loftiest summits scarcely ever form a continuous or connected range of any great extent, the highest groups being frequently separated by ridges of comparatively small elevation, which afford hi consequence natural passes across the chain. Indeed, the two loftiest mountain masses of the whole, the Gran Sasso, and the Majella, do not belong to the central or main range of the Apen- nines at all, if this be reckoned in the customary manner along the line of the water-shed between the two seas. As the Apennines descend into Sam- APENNINES. nium they diminish in height, though still forming a vast mass of mountains of very irregular form and .structure. From the Monte Nerone, near the sources of the Metaurus, to the valley of the Sagrus, or Sangro, the main range of the Apennines continues much nearer to the Adriatic than the Tyrrhenian Sea; so that a very narrow strip of low country intervenes I jet ween the foot of the mountains and the sea on their eastern side, while on the west the whole broad tract of Etruria and Latium separates the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian. This is indeed broken by numerous minor ranges of hills, and even by moun- tains of considerable elevation (such as the Monte A in /ata, near Radicofani), some of which may bo considered as dependencies or outlieu of the Apen- : while other* are of volcanic origin, and AY holly independent of them. To this last class belong the Mons Ciminus and the Alban Hills ; the range of the Volscian Mountains, on the contrary, now called ^^ollti Lepini, which separates the val- li.-s of the Trerus and the Liris from the Pontine Marshes, certainly belongs to the system of the Apennines, which here again descend to the shore of the western sea between Tarracina and Gaieta. From thence the western ranges of the chain sweep round in a semicircle around the fertile plain of Campania, and send out hi a SW. direction the bold and lofty ridge which separates the Bay of Naples from that of Salerno, and ends in the pro- montory of Minerva, opposite to the island of Capreae. On the E. the mountains gradually recede from the shores of the Adriatic, so as to leave a broad plain between their lowest slopes and the sea, which ex- tends without interruption from the mouth of the Frento (Fortore) to that of the Aufidus (Ofanto): the lofty and rugged mass of Mount Garganus, which lias been generally described from the days of Pto- lemy to our own as a branch of the Apennines, being, in fact, a wholly detached and isolated ridge. [GARGANUS.] In the southern parts of Samnium (the region of the Hirpini) the Apennines present a very confused and irregular mass ; the central point or knot of which is formed by the group of moun- tains about the head of the Aufidus, which has the longest course from W. to E. of any of the rivers of Italy S. of the Padus. From this point the central ridge assumes a southerly direction, while numerous offshoots or branches occupy almost the whole of Lucania, extending on the W. to the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the S. to the Gulf of Tarentum. On the E. of the Hirpini, and immediately on the fron- tiers of Apulia and Lucania, rises the conspicuous mass of Mount Vultur, which, though closely ad- joining the chain of the Apennines, is geologically and physically distinct from them, being an iso- lated mountain of volcanic origin. [VuLTUR.] But immediately S. of Mt. Vultur there branches off from the central mass of the Apennines a chain of great hills, rather than mountains, which extends to the eastward into Apulia, presenting a broad tract of barren hilly country, but gradually declining in height as it approaches the Adriatic, until it ends on that coast in a range of low hills between Egnatia and Brundusium. The peninsula of Calabria is traversed only by a ridge of low calcareous hills of tertiary origin and of very trifling elevation, though magnified by many maps and geographical writers into a continuation of the Apennines. (Cluver. Hal. p. 30 ; Swinburne, Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. i. pp. 210, 211.) The main ridge of the latter APENNINUS. 155 approaches very near to the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Pulicastro (Buxentum), and retains this proximity as it descends through Bruttium; but E. of Consentia (Cosenza) lies the great forest-covered mass of the Sila, in some de- gree detached from the main chain, and situated between it and the coast near Crotona. A little further south occurs a remarkable break in the hitherto continuous chain of the Apennines, which appears to end abruptly near the modern village of Tiriolo, so that the two gulfs of Sta Eufemia and Squillace (the Sinus Terinaeus and Scylletinus) are separated only by a low neck of land, less than. 20 miles in breadth, and of such small elevation that not only did the elder Dionysius conceive the idea of carrying a wall across this isthmus (Strab. vi. p. 261), but in modem times Charles III., king of Naples, proposed to cut a canal through it. The mountains which rise again to the S. of this re- markable interruption, form a lofty and rugged mass (now called Aspromonte), which assumes a SW. direction and continues to the extreme southern point of Italy, where the promontory of Leucopetra is expressly designated, both by Strabo and Ptolemy, as the extremity of the Apennines. (Strab. v. p. 211; Ptol. iii. 1. 44.) The loftiest summit in the southern division of the Apennines is the Monte Pollino, near the south frontier of Lucania, which rises to above 7000 feet: the highest point of the Sila attains to nearly 6000 feet, and the summit of Aspromonte to above 4500 feet. (For further de- tails concerning the geography of the Apennines, especially in Central Italy, the reader may consult Abeken, Mittel-Itatien, pp. 10 17, 80 85 ; Kra- mer, Der Fuciner See, pp. 5 11.) Almost the whole mass of the Apennines consists of limestone : primary rocks appear only in the southern- most portion of the chain, particularly in the range of the Aspromonte, which, in its geological structure and physical characters, presents much more analogy with the range in the NE. of Sicily, than with the rest of the Apennines. The loftier ranges of the latter are for the most part bare rocks ; none of them at- tain such a height as to be covered with perpetual snow, though it is said to He all the year round in the rifts and hollows of Monte Majella and the Gran Sasso. But all the highest summits, includ- ing the Monte Velino and Monte Terminillo, both of which are visible from Rome, are covered with, snow early in November, and it does not disappear before the end of May. There is, therefore, no ex- aggeration in Virgil's expression, " nivali Vertice se attollens pater Apenninus ad auras." Aen. xii. 703; see also Sil. Ital. iv. 743. The flanks and lower ridges of the loftier moun- tains are still, in many places, covered with dense woods ; but it is probable that in ancient times the forests were far more extensive (see Ph'n. xxxi. 3. 26) : many parts of the Apennines which are now wholly bare of trees being known to have been co- vered with forests in the middle ages. Pine trees appear only on the loftier summits : at a lower level are found woods of oak and beech, while chesnuts and holm-oaks (luces') clothe the lower slopes and vallies. The mountain regions of Samnium and the districts to the N. of it afford excellent pasturage in summer both for sheep and cattle, on which ac- count they were frequented not only by their own herdsmen, but by those of Apulia, who annually drove their flocks from their own parched and dusty 156 APENNINUS. plains to the upland rallies of the neighbouring Apennines. (Varr. de R. R. ii. 1. 16.) The same districts furnished, like most mountain pas- turages, excellent cheeses. (Plin. xi. 42. s. 97.) We find very few notices of any peculiar natural productions of the Apennines. Varro tells us that wild goats (by which he probably means the Bou- quetin, or Ibex, an animal no longer found in Italy) were still numerous about the Montes Fiscellus and Tetrica (de R. R. ii. 1. 5.), two of the loftiest summits of the range. Very few distinctive appellations of particular mountains or summits among the Apennines have been transmitted to us, though it is probable that in ancient, as well as modern, tunes, almost every conspicuous mountain had its peculiar local name. The MONS FISCELLUS of Varro and Pliny, which, according to the latter, contained the sources of the Nar, is identified by that circumstance with the Monti della Sibilla, on the frontiers of Picenum. The MONS TETRICA (Tetricae horrentes rapes, Virg. A en. vii. 713) must have been hi the same neighbourhood, perhaps a part of the same group, but cannot be distinctly identified, any more than the MONS SEVERUS of Virgil, which he also assigns to the Sabines. The MONS CUNARUS, known only from Servius (ad Aen. x. 185), who calls it " a mountain in Picenum," has been supposed by Cluver to be the one now called II Gran Sasso d 1 Italia ; but this is a mere conjecture. The " GURGURES, alti montes " of Varro (de R. R. ii. 1. 16) ap- pear to have been in the neighbourhood of Reate. All these apparently belong to the lofty central chain of the Apennines : a few other mountains of inferior magnitude are noticed from their proximity to Rome, or other accidental causes. Such are the detached and conspicuous height of Mount Soracte (SORACTE), the MONS LUCRETILIS (now Monte Gennaro), one of the highest points of the range of Apennines immediately fronting Rome and the plains of Latium ; the MONS TIFATA, adjoining the plains of Campania, and MONS CALLICULA, on the frontiers of that country and Samnium, both of them celebrated in the campaigns of Hannibal ; and the MONS TABURNUS, in the territory of the Caudine Samnites, near Beneventum, still called Monte Ta- burno. In the more southern regions of the Apen- nines we find mention by name of the MONS AL- BURNUS, on the banks of the Silarus, and the SILA in Bruttium, which still retains its ancient appel- lation. The Mons Vultur and Garganus, as already mentioned, do not properly belong to the Apennines, any more than Vesuvius, or the Alban hills. From the account above given of the Apennines it is evident that the passes over the chain do not assume the degree of importance which they do in the Alps. In the northern part of the range from Liguria to the Adriatic, the roads which crossed them were carried, as they still are, rather over the bare ridges, than along the vallies and courses of the streams. The only dangers of these passes arise from the violent storms which rage there in the winter, and which even, on one occasion, drove back Hanni- bal when he attempted to cross them. Livy's striking description of this tempest is, according to the testimony of modern witnesses, little, if at all, exaggerated. (Liv. xxi. 58 ; Niebuhr, Vortrage uber Alte Lander, p. 336.) The passes through the more lofty central Apennines are more strongly marked by nature, and some of them must have been frequented from a very early period as the APEROPIA. natural lines of communication from one district to another. Such are especially the pass from Reate, by Interocrea, to the valley of the Aternus, and thence to Teate and the coast of the Adriatic ; and, again, the line of the Via Valeria, from the upper valley of the Anio to the Lake Fucinus, and thence across the passage of the Forca Caruso (the Mons Imeus of the Itineraries) to Corfinium. The de- tails of these and the other passes of the Apennines will be best given under the heads of the respective regions or provinces to which they belong. The range of the Apennines is, as remarked by ancient authors, the source of almost all the rivers of Italy, with the exception only of the Padus and its northern tributaries, and the streams which de- scend from the Alps into the upper part of the Adriatic. The numerous rivers which water the northern declivity of the Apennine chain, from the foot of the Maritime Alps to the neighbourhood of Ariminum, all unite their waters with those of the Padus ; but from the time it takes the great turn to the southward, it sends off its streams on both sides direct to the two seas, forming throughout the rest of its course the watershed of Italy. Few of these rivers have any great length of course, and not being fed, like the Alpine streams, from per- petual snows, they mostly partake much of the na- ture of torrents, being swollen and violent in winter and spring, and nearly dry or reduced to but scanty streams, hi the summer. There are, however, some exceptions: the Arnus and the Tiber retain, at all seasons, a considerable body of water, while the Liris and Vulturnus both derive their origin from subterranean sources, such as are common in all limestone countries, and gush forth at once in copious streams of clear and limpid water. [E. H. B.] APERA'NTIA ('Airepavria: Eth. 'Airepavrds'), the name of a district in the NE. of Aetolia, pro- bably forming part of the territory of the Agraei. Stephanus, on the authority of Polybius, mentions a town of the same name ('Airfpdi>Tia), which ap- pears to have been situated near the confluence of the Petitarus with the Achelous, at the modern vil- lage of Preventza, which may be a corruption of the ancient name, and where Leake discovered some Hellenic ruins. Philip V., king of Macedonia, ob- tained possession of Aperantia ; but it was taken from him, together with Amphilochia, by the Aeto- lians in B. c. 189. Aperantia is mentioned again in B. c. 169, in the expedition of Perseus against Stratus. (Pol. xxii. 8 ; Liv. xxxviii. 3, xliii. 22 ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 141.) APERLAE ("ATTACH : Eth. 'ATrepAeirr??), a place in Lycia, fixed by the Stadiasmus 60 stadia west of Somena, and 64 stadia west of Andriace. Leake (Asia Minor, p. 188) supposes Somena to be the Simena of Pliny (v. 27). Aperlae, which is written in the text of Ptolemy " Aperrae," and in Pliny " Apyrae," is proved to be a genuine name by an inscription found by Cockerell, at the head of Hassar bay, with the Ethnic name 'ATrepAeiTcov on it. But there are also coins of Gordian with the Ethnic name 'Aireppairaf. The confusion between the I and the r in the name of an insignificant place is nothing remarkable. [G. L.] APERO'PIA ('ATrepoTrta), a small island, which Pausanias describes as lying off the promontory Buporthmus hi Hermionis, and near the island of Hydrea. Leake identifies Buporthmus with C. Mu- zdki and Aperopia with Dhoko. (Paus. ii. 34. 9, Plin. iv. 12. s. 19; Leake, Peloponnesiaca, p. 284.) APERRAE. ATT.KKAK. [APKKLAK.] A'PESAS ('ATTtVos : Fuka), a mountain in Pe- loponnesus above Nemea in the territory of Cleonae, where Perseus is said to have been the first person, who sacrificed to Zeus Apesantius. (Leake, Morea, vol. iii. p. 325; Ross, Peloponnes, p. 40.) A'PHACA (*A0a*a: Afka), a town of Syria, midway between Heliopolis and Byblus. (Zosim. i. 58.) In the neighbourhood was a marvellous lake. (Comp. Senec. Quaest. Nat. iii. 25.) Here was a temple of Aphrodite, celebrated for its impure and abominable rites, and destroyed by Constantino. (Euseb. de Vita, iii. 55; Sozom. ii. 5.) Aphek in the land assigned to the tribe of Asher (Joshua, xix. .30), but which they did not occupy (Judges, i. 31), has been identified with it. (Winer, Real Wort. :irt. Aphek.) Burckhardt (Travels, p. 25) speaks 6Tai or 'A^trai: Eth. 'Ae- Talos), a port of Magnesia in Thessaly, said to have derived its name from the departure of the Argonauts from it. The Persian fleet occupied the bay of Aphetae, previous to the battle of Artemisium, from which Aphetae was distant 80 stadia, according to Herodotus. Leake identifies Aphetae with the modern harbour of Trikeri, or with that between the island of Paled Trikeri and the main. (Herod, vii. 193, 196, viii. 4; Strab. p. 436; Apoll. Rhod. i. 591 ; Steph. B. s. v. ; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iv. p. 397, Demi of Attica, p. 243, seq.) APHIDNA, or APHIDNAE ('Apo- , Aphrodisiensis). 1. (Ghera) an ancient town of Caria, situated at Ghera or Geyra, south of Antiocheia on the Maeander, as is proved by in- scriptions which have been copied by several tra- vellers. Drawings of the remains of Aphrodisias have been made by the order of the Dilettanti So- ciety. There are the remains of an Ionic temple of Aphrodite, the goddess from whom the place took the name of Aphrodisias ; fifteen of the white marble columns are still standing. A Greek inscription on a tablet records the donation of one of the columns to Aphrodite and the demus. Fellows (Lycia, p. 32) has described the remains of Aphrodisias, and given a view of the temple. The route of Fellows was from Antiocheia on the Maeander up the valley of the Mosynus, which appears to be the ancient name of the stream that joins the Maeander at An- tiocheia; and Aphrodisias lies to the east of the head of the valley in which the Mosynus rises, and at a considerable elevation. Stephanus (s. v. Mfya\6Tro\is"), says that it was first a city of the Leleges, and, on account of its magnitude, was called Megalopolis ; and it was also called Ninoe, from Ninus (see also s. v. Ntfdrj), a confused bit of history, and useful for nothing except to show that it was probably a city of old foundation. Strabo (p. 576) assigns it to the division of Phrygia; but in Pliny (v. 29) it is a Carian city, and a free city (Aphrodisienses liberi) in the Roman sense of that period. In the time of Tiberius, when there was an inquiry about the right of asyla, which was claimed and exercised by many Greek cities, the Aphrodisienses relied on a decree of the dictator Caesar for their services to his party, and on a recent decree of Augustus. (Tac. Ann. iii. 62.) Sherard, in 1705 or 1716, copied an inscription at Aphro- disias, which he communicated to Chishull, who pub- lished it in his Antiquitates Asiaticae. This Greek inscription is a Consultum of the Roman senate, which confirms the privileges granted by the Dic- tator and the Triumviri to the Aphrodisienses. The Consultum is also printed in Oberlin's Tacitus, and elsewhere. This Consultum gives freedom to the demus of the Plaraseis and the Aphrodisieis. It also declares the temenos of the goddess Aphrodite in the city of the Plaraseis and the Aphrodisieis to have the same rights as the temple of the Ephesia at Ephesus; and the temenos was declared to be an asylum. Plarasa then, also a city of Caria, and Aphrodisias were in some kind of alliance and inti- mate relation. There are coins of Plarasa; and " coins with a legend of both names are also not very uncommon." (Leake.) COIN OF Ai'HKODISIAS IN CABIA. 158 APHRODISIAS. 2. A city of Cilicia. Stephanus (s. v. \ 5t(nas) quotes Alexander Polyhistor, who quotes Zopyrus as an authority for this place, being so called from Aphrodite, a fact which we might assume. The Stadiasmus states that Aphrodisias is nearest to Cyprus, and 500 stadia north of Aulion, the NE. extremity of Cyprus. It is mentioned by Diodorus (xix. 61); and by Livy (xxxiii. 20) with Cora- cesium, Soli, and other places on this coast. It seems from Pliny (v. 27, who calls it " Oppidum Veneris ") and other authorities (it is not mentioned by Strabo) to have been situated between Celenderes and Sarpedon. It was on or near a promontory also called Aphrodisias. The site is not certain. Leake supposes that the cape near the Papadula rocks was the 'promontory Aphrodisias, and that some vestiges of the town may be found near the harbour behind the cape. (See also Beaufort's Karamania, p. 2 1 1 . ) 3. A promontory on the SW. coast of Caria (Mela, i. 16; Plin. v. 28), between the gulfs of Schoenus and Thymnias. The modern name is not mentioned by Hamilton, who passed round it (Researches, vol. ii. p. 72). It has sometimes been confounded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo, which is Cape Volpo. [G. L.] APHRODI'SIAS ('A^poSto-zos), an island ad- jacent to the N. coast of Africa, marking the extent westward of the people called Giligammae (Herod, iv. 169). Ptolemy mentions it as one of the islands off the coast of Cyrenai'ca, calling it also Laea (Acua 3) 'Ac^poSmjs vrjcros, iv, 4. 14; Steph. B. s. .) Scylax (p. 45, Hudson, p. 109, Gronov.) places it between the Chersonesus Magna (the E. headland of Cyrenai'ca) and Naustathmus (near its N. point), and mentions it as a station for ships. The anonymous Periplus gives its po- sition more definitely, between Zephyrium and Chersis; and calls it a port, with a temple of Aphrodite. It may, perhaps, correspond with the island of Al Hiera. (Mannert, vol. x. pt. 2. p, 80.) [P. S.] APHRODI'SIAS, in Spain. 1. [GADES.] 2. [PORT us VENERIS.] APHRODI'SIAS ('As), a city of Cyprus, situated at the narrowest part of the island, only 70 stadia from Salamis. (D'Anville, in Mem. de Litt. vol. xxxii. p. 541.) [E. B. J.] 2. A small place in Arcadia, not far from Mega- lopolis, on the road to Megalopolis and Tegea. (Paus. viii. 44. 2.) 3. [ARDEA.] APHRODI'SIUS MONS (rb 'ApoSiT7js Tnkiy, 'Apo8n-o- TTO\IS, 'APOAEITOnOAI. (Rasche, s. v.) 3. In Upper Egypt, or the Thebais. 4. (Tcuchta) on the W. side of the Nile, but at some distance from the river, below Ptolemais and Panopolis; capital of the Nomos Aphroditopolites (Plin. v. 9, 10. s. 11, Veneris iterum, to distin- guish it from No. 5 ; Strab. xvii. p. 8 13 ; Agatharch. de JRub. Mar. p. 22; Prokesch, Erinnervmgen, vol. i. p. 152.) 5. (Deir, Ru.), on the W. side of the Nile, much higher up than the former, and, like it, a little distance from the river; in the Nomos Hermonthites, between Thebes and Apol- lonopolis Magna; and a little NW. of Latopolis. (Plin. v. 10. s. 11.) [P.S.] APHTHI'TES NOMOS (<5 'A00mjs j/o/z^s), a nomos of Lower Egypt, in the Delta, mentioned by Herodotus, between those of Bubastis and Tanis ; but neither he nor any other writer mentions such a city as Aphthis. The name seems to point to a chief seat of the worship of Phthah, the Egyptian Hephaestus. (Herod, ii. 166.) [P. S.] A'PHYTIS ("Acpims, also 'A a small place in Argolis, near the frontiers of Cynuria, was said to have been so called from Danaus landing at this spot. (Paus. ii. 38. 4.) The surrounding country was also called Pyramia (ITupo^ja), from the monuments in the form of pyramids found here. CPlut. Pyrrh. 32; Ross, Reisen im Peloponnes, p. 152.) APO'COPA ('ATrrfKoira, Steph.B. s. V.-, Peripl. M. Eryth. p. 9 ; Ptol. i. 17. 7), Magr.a and Parva, respectively Bandel dAgoa and Cape Bedouin were two small towns in a bay of similar name (Ptol. i. 17. 9), on the coast of Africa Barbaria, between the headlands of Raptum and Prasum. Their inhabitants were Aethiopians (Ai'fliWes 'Pctyioi, Ptol. iv. 8. 3). [W. B. D.] APODOTI. [AETOLIA, p. 65, a.] APO'LLINIS PROMONTORIUM ('AirrfAAwi/os S/fpop), in N. Africa. 1. Also called 'AiroXXuviov (Strab. xvii. p. 832), a promontory on the N. coast of Africa Propria, near Utica, and forming the W. headland, as the Mercurii Pr. formed the E., of the great gulf of Utica or Carthage. (Strab. I c.) This description, and all the other references to it, identify it with C. Farina or Ras Sidi Ali-al-Mekhi, and not the more westerly C. Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou- Shusha. (It is to be observed, however, that Shaw applies the name Zibeeb to the former). Livy (xxx. 24) mentions it as hi sight of Carthage, which will apply to the former cape, but not to the latter. Mela (i. 7) mentions it as one of the three great headlands on this coast, between the other two, Can- didum and Mercurii. It is a high pointed rock, re- markable for its whiteness. (Shaw, p. 145; Barth, Wanderungen, i'o7roAmjs), the name of several cities hi Egypt 1. APOLLINOPOMS MAGNA (iroAts /j.fyd\-rj 'Air^AAawos, Strab. xvii. p. 817; Agartharch. p.22; Plin. v. 9. s. 11; Plut. Is. et Osir. 50; Aelian. Hist. An. x. 2; Ptol. iv. 5. 70; APOLLINOPOLIS. 159 Steph. Byzant. s. t\; 'Airo\\wvids, Ilierocl. p. 732; It. Ant. p. 160, 174; Not, Imp. Orient, c. 143. Apollonos Superioris [urbs]), the modem Edfoo, was a city of the Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in Lat. 25 N., and about thirteen miles below the lesser Cataract. Ptolemy (/. c.) assigns Apollinopolis to the Hermonthite nome, but it was more commonly regarded as the capital town of the nome Apollopoh'tes. Under the Roman em- perors it was the seat of a Bishop's see, and the head-quarters of the Legio II. Trajana. Its in- habitants were enemies of the crocodile and its worshippers. Both the ancient city and the modern hamlet, however, derived their principal reputation from two temples, which are considered second only to the Temple of Denderah as specimens of the sacred structures of Egypt. The modern Edfoo is contained within the courts, or built upon the plat- form of the principal of the two temples at Apolli- nopolis. The larger temple is in good preservation, but is partially buried by the sand, by heaps of rubbish, and by the modern town. The smaller temple, sometimes, but improperly, called a Typho- nium, is apparently an appendage of the latter, and its sculptures represent the birth and education of the youthful deity, Horus, whose parents Noum, or Kneph and Athor, were worshipped in the larger edifice. The principal temple is dedicated to Noum, whose symbol is the disc of the sun, supported by two asps and the extended wings of a vulture. Its sculptures represent (Rosellini, Monum. del Culto, p. 240, tav. xxxviii.) the progress of the Sun, Phre-Hor-Hat, Lord of Heaven, moving in his bark (Bari) through the circle of the Hours. The local name of the district round Apollinopolis was Hat, and Noum was styled Hor-hat-kah, or Horus, the tutelary genius of the land of Hat. This deity forms also at Apollinopolis a triad with the goddess Athor and Hor-Senet. The members of the triad are youthful gods, pointing their finger towards their mouths, and before the discovery of the hieroglyphic character were regarded as figures of Harpocrates. The entrance into the larger temple of Apolli- nopolis is a gateway (irvXwv) 50 feet high, flanked by two converging wings (Trrepd) in the form of truncated pyramids, rising to 107 feet. The wings contain ten stories, are pierced by round loop-holes for the admission of light, and probably served as chambers or dormitories for the priests and servitors of the temple. From the jambs of the door project two blocks of stone, which were intended, as De*non supposes, to support the heads of two colossal figures. This propylaeon leads into a large square, surrounded by a colonnade roofed with squared granite, and on the opposite side is a prouaos or portico, 53 feet in height, and having a triple row of columns, six in each row, with variously and gracefully foliaged capitals. The temple is 145 feet wide, and 424 feet long from the entrance to the opposite end. Every part of the walls is covered with hieroglyphics, and the main court ascends gradually to the pronaos by broad steps. The whole area of the building was surrounded by a wall 20 feet high, of great thickness. Like so many of the Egyptian temples, that of Apollinopolis was capable of being employed as a fortress. It stood about a third of a mile from the river. The sculp- tures, although carefully and indeed beautifully executed, are of the Ptolemaic era, the earliest por- 160 APOLLONIA. tion of the temple having been erected by PUlemy Philometor B. c. 181. The temple of Apollinopolis, as a sample of Egyptian sacred architecture, is minutely described in the Penny Cyclopedia, art. Edfu, and in the 1st volume of British Museum, Egyptian Antiquities, where also will be found a ground -plan of it. See also Belzoni, and Wilkinson's Egypt and Thebes, pp. 435438. 2. APOLLINOPOLIS PARVA ('Air6\\cavos f] nwpd, Steph. B. s.v.; 'Air6\\wv /j.LKp6s, Hierocl. p. 731; Apollonos minoris [urbs], It. Anton, p. 158), was a town in Upper Egypt, in Lat. 27 N., upon the western bank of the Nile. It stood between Hyp- t>ela and Lycopolis, and belonged to the Hypseliote nome. 3. APOLLINOPOLIS PARVA ('ATTOAACOVOS Tr6\is /jLiitpd, Ptol. iv. 5. 70; 'ATT^AAwi/os TrdAts, Strab. xvii. p. 815; Apollonos Vicus, It. Anton, p. 165), was a town of the Thebaid, in the Coptite Nome, in Lat. 26 N., situated between Thebes and Coptos. It stood on the eastern bank of the Nile, and carried on an active trade with Berenice and Myos Honnos, on the Red Sea. Apollinopolis Parva was 22 miles distant from Thebes, and is the modern Kuss. It corresponds, probably, to the Maximianopolis of the later emperors. 4. APOLLINOPOLIS (Steph. B. s.v. ; Plin. vi. 35), was a town of the Megabari, in eastern Aethiopia. 5. APOLLONOS HYDREIUM (Plin. vi. 26; It. Anton.), stood upon the high road from Coptos, in the Thebaid, to Berenice on the Eed Sea, and was a watering station for the caravans in their transit between those cities. [W. B. D.] APOLLO'NIA ('A7roAAa>i/fa : Etii. 'Airo\\wid- TTJS, Apolloniates, Apollinas, -atis, Apolloniensis), in Europe. 1 . A city of Sicily, which, according to Steph. Byz.,was situated in the neighbourhood of Aluntium Calacte. Cicero also mentions it ( Or. in Verr. iii. 43) and in conjunction with Haluntium, Capitium, and Enguium, in a manner that seems to imply that it was situated in the same part of Sicily with these cities; and we learn from Diodorus (xvi. 72) that it was at one time subject to Leptines, the tyrant of Enguium, from whose hands it was wrested by Timoleon, and restored to an independent condition. A little later we find it again mentioned among the cities reduced by Agathocles, after his return from Africa, B.C. 307 (Diod. xx. 56). But it evidently regained its liberty after the fall of the tyrant, and in the days of Cicero was still a municipal town of some im- portance. (Or. in Verr. iii. 43, v. 33.) From this time it disappears from history, and the name is not found either in Pliny or Ptolemy. Its site has been much disputed; but the pas- sages above cited point distinctly to a position in the north-eastern part of Sicily; and it is probable that the modern PoUina, a small town on a hill, about 3 miles from the sea-coast, and 8 or 9 E. from Cefalu, occupies its site. The resemblance of name is cer- tainly entitled to much weight; and if Enguium be correctly placed at Gangi, the connexion between that city and Apollonia is easily explained. It must be admitted that the words of Stephanus require, in this case, to be construed with considerable latitude, but little dependence can be placed upon the accu- racy of that writer. The coins which have been published as of this city belong either to Apollonia, in Illyria, or to Tauromenium (Eckhel, vol. i. p. 198.) [E. H. B.J 2. The name of two cities in Crete, one near APOLLONIA. Cnossus(Steph.B. s. v.),the inhabitants of which were most treacherously treated by the Cydoniatae, who were their friends and allies. (Polyb. xxvii. 16.) The site is on the coast near Armyro, or perhaps approaching towards Megalo Kastron, at the C/ti- ofero. (Pashley, Crete, vol. i. p. 261.) The site of the other city, which was once called Eleuthera ('EAevflepa, Steph. B.), is uncertain. The philoso- pher Diogenes Apolloniates was a native of Apol- loniates in Crete. (Diet, of Biog. s. v.) [E.B.J.] 3. (PoUina, or Pollona), a city of Illyria, situ- ated 10 stadia from the right bank of the Aous, and 60 stadia from the sea (Strab. vii. p. 316), or ( 50 stadia according to Scylax (p. 10). It was j founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans in the seventh century before the Christian era, and is s